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ENGINEERING BOOK. 

BY 

R. C. YEOMAN, B. S. C. E. 

Dean of Civil Engineering, Valparaiso University; Professor of Civil Engineering, 
Valparaiso University; Former Instructor in Civil Engineering, Purdue Uni- 
versity; Associate Member of Western Society of Engineers; Certified Mem- 
ber of American Association of Engineers; Draftsman Pennsylvania Railway 
Company; Draftsman and Efficiency Man for National Bridge Company, 
Valparaiso, Indiana. 



■r 



THE PEOPLES EFFICIENCY 
PUBLISHING CO. 

CLEVELAND. O. 




1918 ' i;c^ 

Monograph 






Copyright 1917 

By 

The People's Efficiency Publishing Co. 

CLEVELAND, OHIO 



, 



m -2 >3I7 



(CI.A476945 

1 V^ f 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

AN Indiana farmer recently remarked that his son, just home from school, was 
doing the same work with a tractor that formerly required three men and eleven 
horses to do. And this was done at less expense. What does this mean? He 
was able to release three men and eleven horses to be used for further production 
elsewhere and also to increase his own production with the same effort. This is a 
distinct addition to the wealth of society; that is, there will be more food, more shelter 
and more enjoyment for EVERYONE. The rapid growth in the use of machinery, con- 
crete and the more durable materials has improved the method of living until the poorest 
citizen lives in a palace compared with conditions of only a century ago. 

All this wonderful change in the things about us requires educational advancement 
to prepare those who are past the school age and to assist those who are in school to 
take advantage of them. The writer has in these pages that follow endeavored to 
give the reader the latest and most practical ideas and how they may be applied. 
Works of this kind now on the market have been excellent in their day, but new 
ideas and methods require new treatment. 

This work is written for the owner or operator of the farm who has always 

progressed as opportunity offered. Progress is the leading thought. In every subject 

are new and advanced ideas, with special treatment, designed for the immediate use 
of the most modern farm. 

The author has covered a broad list of subjects, each of them of vital interest to 
the farmer. These are handled in a way distinctly useful. High sounding and 
theoretical phrases are omitted. The work is intended to be a working guide to 
the busy man who has little time to theorize, but must and will get things done. 

In the chapter on Engines, Automobiles and Tractors will be found the result 
of experience with and the teaching of this subject for many years. The theory of 
the Gasoline Engine is presented in a simple, concise manner that any school boy 
of twelve years can understand. The treatise on fuels is brief, but complete. Power 
rating and testing of engines is a unique feature. The Trouble Chapter is a departure 
from the ordinary method. The troubles are listed and described first. The owner 
will have no use for this chapter until the trouble arises. The Upkeep Chapter should 
be mastered at once, and the Trouble Chapter will not become necessary. 

Automobiles are no longer a luxury, but a necessity. The chapter on Care is 
given first place, since proper study of the chapter will make the auto a profit 
instead of a loss. The farmer may become his own repair man and save the excessive 
fees charged by the average garage. Auto Hints are money savers to the sensible 
owner. Each is presented in a simple, usable style. 

One of the seven wonders is surely concrete. This magic powder changes sand 
and gravel hills into mansions of art and -usefulness. Now over a hundred cement 
mills pour out their millions of barrels" 4 a -ily- This tremendous output is indicative 
of the general application it so richly deserves. 

Although cement and concrete are as common now as timber was a few years 
ago, yet the science of making good concrete is in its infancy. Every day new ideas 
and discoveries are being brought to light. The writer is in touch constantly with 
the most recent practice in cement and concrete manufacture. The chapter on 
Materials for Concrete takes up each aggregate in detail. The origin and value of 
each material is plainly stated. The care and storing of these materials is taken 
up and suggestions made that will be easy for the farmer to fill. This chapter should 
be read with care, as it is the foundation of good concrete manufacture. The chapters 
on Concrete and Concrete Construction take up the mixing, coloring, cost and construc- 
tion in an extensive manner. The whole work is profusely illustrated, so as to make 
the application universal. Hundreds of other illustrations were available, but the 
author has selected only those which are typical and will be needed first on the farm. 



PREFACE 

When these are successfully made, the farmer will easily construct from his own plans 
larger and more complicated structures. 

The department on Heating Plants takes up the principal points in heating, and 
particular attention is called to the discussion on hot-air furnaces. If the instructions 
given are properly followed, success will always result. Simple and easy diagrams 
and plans are given. With the suggestions given, a farmer may put in his own heating 
plant, whether it be of hot air, hot water or steam, and save the excessive labor 
costs' charged by the union plumber. , 

It is said that the first convenience on the farm should be water under pressure. 
This is taken up in the chapter on Water Supply and Plumbing. The illustrations 
in this department portray so well modern practice and are backed up by the 
experience of the United States Government. Many of the suggestions were taken 
from their bulletins. After a careful study of this department, the farmer will be 
a.ble to provide the conveniences of city residence at a minimum cost. 

There is probably no other single factor which will improve a farm so much 
as drainage, especially when drainage is necessary. The thorough discussion given 
in this department is boiled down as result of long experience and study. It is 
made simple and convenient, so as not to tire out the reader with a lot of needless 
detail. Where expert advice is necessary, the use of an engineer is suggested. 

Second only to drainage is irrigation. In this department is briefly told the story 
of irrigation in the United States. The information is put in a workable style and 
the theory made as practical as possible. Irrigation in humid climates is touched upon 
The average opinion has been in regard to the future for the individual that if 
he couldn't do anything else, he could go on the farm. This is all changed. The 
farming business is the largest in the world and should be the best managed. The 
purpose of this department is to assist in bringing about this change. The theory of 
business is simply stated, and practical hints and outlines are given for increasing the 
efficiency of the farm in every way. 

The conservation of the country's resources is much talked of in the press, always 
referring to coal, oil and timber. This is unfair. The wastes of the nation are not 
limited to these three commodities. The protection of our structures against the 
destructive elements of the atmosphere is a branch of conservation well known but 
seldom talked about. This work would not be complete without giving some simple 
advice on the use and selection of paint. There are so many fraudulent paints and 
preservatives on the market that a simple treatise on the subject is needed at this 
time to safeguard the busy farmer who hasn't time to go into the science of the 
manufacture of these materials. Only practical formulas that have been long tried 
out and are easy for the farmer to secure and use are treated. There are_ thousands 
of recipes which are difficult to mix and apply and are no better than the simple ones 
suggested. Wherever it is advisable to buy on the market in prepared form rather 
than to mix the raw materials, the advice is so given. The author could have filled 
a hundred pages with formulas for the scientific man who is unlimited by capital or 
machinery, but this is not practical for the busy farmer and has been avoided. 

Probably there is nothing on the farm more useful than rope. In nearly every 
neighborhood is found some old sailor who is called upon for miles around to do 
what rope repairing is necessary. With this chapter the farmer will be able to do 
this work himself, and not only save the expense of hiring his neighbor to do it, but 
the time in going after him, which is ofte^i more valuable. 

In preparing this work the author is irid'eb&ed to the Witte Gas Engine Company, 
Fairbanks-Morse Company, International Harvester Companv, the Buick Automobile 
Company, the American Portland Cement Association. Universal Portland Cement 
Company, Wisconsin University Experiment Station, Minnesota Experiment Station, 
the Montana Experiment Station, Ohio Experiment Station. Department of Agriculture, 
Montgomery Ward & Company, and many other authorities mentioned in the foot- 
notes, where their work is used. Without the help of the above a work of this 
kind would be impossible. The hearty thanks of the author and the reader is here 
recorded to those who have helped to make this work a success. 

Should the reader at any time feel disposed to write concerning any part of this 
work, the author would be pleased to have criticisms submitted, and wherever 
corrections are necessary he will appreciate his attention being called to it. 

R. C. YEOMAN, 

Valparaiso, Ind. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



ENGINEERING 

Pages 

Farm Gas Engines 1-34 

Mechanical Power on the Farm, Power Produces Profit, Gas Engine 
Uses on the Farm, Elements of Gas Engine, Principles of Combustion, 
Simple Principle of a Gas Engine, Operation of Gas Engine, Types of 
Two-Cycle Engines, Three-Port Engine, Details of Gas Engine, Carbu- 
ration, Adjusting the Mixture of Fuel and Air, Back-firing, Rich Mix- 
ture and its Effect, Gas Engine Combustion, Combustion and Explosion, 
Timing the Ignition, Cooling the Engine, Source of Power in Gas 
Engines, Kinds of Fuel, Composition of Crude Petroleum, Separation of 
Petroleum Products, Petroleum Products Classified, Baume Scale, Cor- 
rect Approximate Weight of Petroleum Products, Petroleum Fuels now 
on Market, Heating Value of Petroleum Products, Power Rating of Cias 
Engine, Power, Indicator or Indicated and Drawbar Horse Power, 
Calculating the Engine Horse Power, Best Way to Get Horse Power, 
Brake Test for Gasoline Engines, Operation, Need for Testing Engine, 
Economy Test, Power House or Shop on Farm, Care, Location of Power 
House, Shafting, Pulleys, Spacing the Hangers, Machines and Line Shaft, 
Engine and the Machines, Managing the Power Plant, Pulleys, Speeds 
and Sizes, Gas Engine Trouble, Troubles Analyzed, Miscellaneous 
Upkeep of a Gas Engine. 

Automobiles * 35-40 

Automobiles, Auto Hints, Tires. 

Concrete • 41-97 

Materials, Advantages, Some Mistakes About Concrete, Portland Ce- 
ment, How Portland Cement is Packed, Storing Portland Cement, Aggre- 
gates are Composed of Sand, Gravel or Broken Stone, Natural Deposits 
of Aggregate, Water Tight Concrete, Broken Stone, Screening the Aggre- 
gate, Dirt in Aggregate, Washing Aggregate, Mixing Concrete, Table of 
Recommended Mixtures, Amount of Water to Use, Coloring, Protecting 
Finished Work, Concreting in Cold Weather, Test for Hardness, Rein- 
forced Concrete, Cost of Concrete Work, Illustrations for Calculating 
Quantities and Cost for Simple Concrete Structures, Calculating Cost of 
Concrete, Forms for Concrete, Construction of Concrete, Floors, Walks, 
and Other Pavements, Hints, Concrete Foundations, Piers and Walls, 
Solid Concrete and Concrete Blocks for Foundations, Water Tanks or 
Troughs, Construction of Trough and Tank, Sheep and Hog Troughs, 
Rectangular Concrete Hog Wallow, Milk and Cream Vats, Manure Pits, 
Concrete in Cow Barn, How to Build Dairy Barn Floors, Alleyway, Stall 
Floor, Manger, Feedway, Horse Barn Floors, Concrete Mangers, Con- 
crete Fence Posts, Timber Post Facts, Cisterns, Construction, Material 
Required, Stairways and Steps, Construction of Basement Steps, Step 
Forms, Portland Cement Stucco, Constituents of Stucco, Stucco Lath, 
Application of Stucco, Methods of Applying Stucco on Old Brick, Mak- 
ing Old Frame Buildings, New Stucco on New Work, Surface Finishing 
and Coloring, Surface Finish for Concrete. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Pages 

Modern Heating Plants 98-104 

Advantages of Hot Air Furnace, Disadvantages, Pipe Hot-Air Furnace, 
Design and Installation of Hot-Air Furnace, Ordering Hot-Air Furnace, 
Chimney, Construction of Chimney, Other Heating Systems, Installation 
of Hot "Water, Steam and Vapor Systems, Steam Heating Systems, Va- 
por Heating Systems. 

Water Supplies, Plumbing and Sewage Disposal for Country Homes . . . 105-148 
Sewage Disposal Systems, Farm Water Supply, Surface Supplies, 
Underground Water Supplies, Pumping, Storage and Distribution of 
Water, Plumbing, Sewage Purification and Disposal, Final Disposal 
System, Grease Trap. 

Drainage 149-163 

Benefits of Drainage, Removal of Free or Ground Water, Drainage as a 
Speculation, Outlining the Farmers' Drainage Problem, Staking out 
Drainage System, Grades, How to Survey, Capacity of Main Drain, Plac- 
ing the Laterals, Constructing the Ditch and Grading, Under Drainage, 
Location, Outlet, Size, Depth and Grade of Tile Needed, Depth to Lay 
Tile, Size and Grade, Clay and Cement Tile, Trenching, Back Filling, 
Blasting Rock, Open Drains, Cost and Profit of Tile Drainage, Drainage 
Projects, To Determine the Value of Drainage. 

Irrigation 164-175 

Acts of the Government of U. S., Sources of Irrigation Water, Conser- 
vation of Irrigating Water, Measurement of Water. 

"^arming as a Business 176-196 

Business Methods, A Sample Farm Inventory, How to Figure Farm 
Profit, Co-operative Association, Kinds of Co-operative Organizations. 

Farm Planning and Farm Agriculture 197-228 

Designing the Large Units, Farm Buildings, Hog House, Sheep Barn, 
Poultry House, Removable Chicken House, Granary, Potato Warehouse, 
Root Cellar, Lightning Protection. 

Paints 229-239 

Precautions to be Observed in Painting, Paint Bases, Imitations of Dif- 
ferent Kinds of Wood, Varnishes, Glues. 

Rope and Its Use 240-271 

General Information, Preventing the Ends of Rope from Untwisting, 
Loops Between the Rope's Ends, Hitches, Splices, Blocks and Tackle, 
Theoretical Discussion. 

HANDY HOME HELPS 

Kitchen Helps 272-297 

Butter Paddles, Butter, Coffee, Eggs, Fruits, Meats, Keeping of Meats, 
Curing Meats, Vessels for Curing, Preservatives, Curing in Brine and 
Dry Curing Compared, Recipes for Curing, Smoking of Meats, Keeping 
Smoked Meats, Milk, Pastries, Cake, Vegetables, Miscellaneous. 

To Clean and Remove 298-307 

To Clean, Marble, Painted Doors, Walls, etc., Silver, Sponges, Ammonia 
Facts, Javelle Water, to Remove. 

Bugs and Pests 308-314 

Ants, Bees, Bird Robbers of Fruit, Bugs, Fleas, Flies, Gnats, Insects, 
Lice, Mice, Mosquitoes, Moths, Roaches, Sparrows, Spiders, Tobacco in 
Garden Use, Worms. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Pages 

Laundry Helps 315-323 

Washing, Liquid Dye Colors, Drying, Ironing, Excellent Stain 
Removers. 

Clothing — How to Fix Over and Renew 324-328 

Aprons, Buttons, How to Save, Fix Over or Renew, Dye, Hats, Gloves, 
Shoes, Rubbers, Stockings, Ties, Rompers, Skirts, Shirts, Rag Bag, 
Silks, Sun Bonnets, Velvet, Unironed Clothes, To Fireproof Goods, To 
Keep Colors Bright, To Keep Furs, To Remove Grease from Cloth, 
Mending, Dress Form. 

Inks, Pastes, Cements, Etc 329-330 

Cements, Ink, Pastes, Miscellaneous Recipes for Polishing Metals, Wood- 
work, etc. 

Recipes fob Polishing Metals, Woodwork, Etc 331-333 

Miscellaneous _ 334-340 

Handy Devices for the Farm 341-347 



MECHANICS OF THE FARM. 

PART ONE. 

FARM GAS ENGINES. 

Introduction. 

In these days of high costs, the subject of power is of vital interest to 
every farmer. Farm labor is becoming so high priced, and so hard to get, 
that the farmer must adopt some means of getting the work done without the 
help of labor. Let us compare the cost of work done by man, horse, and engine. 
A horse can do approximately ten time as much work as the average man ; an 
engine at the same cost can do ten times more than a horse. Therefore, for 
certain classes of work it is evident that if the cost of man power to do it 
would be one dollar, a horse could do it for ten cents, and an engine could do 
it for one cent. This ratio will not work out for every use to which a man, 
a horse, or an engine may be put, for, wherever intelligence is required, man 
power is necessary, and the element of strength must take second place. 

Mechanical Power on the Farm. 

The recent development of farm machinery and internal combustion en- 
gines has made it possible for the farmer to do a large part of his work by 
machinery. Statistics from the census reports tell us that the farmer is one 
of the most extensive users of gas engines. 

Power Produces Profit. 

If the farmer applies an engine to one-fourth of his work, he can produce 
five times as much as he has been doing by hand, for the same money. A 
profit from such a multiplication of power of five hundred percent will retire 
interest and capital in a very short time. 

A 5-h. p. gas engine, linked up to a wood saw, with two men to operate 
it, will saw 30 cords of wood in one day. Any farmer can easily see the 
comparison between what two men do with a machine and without one. 
(See Plate I). 

Not only does the use of power on the farm produce profit, but it makes 
the farm work easier for the farmer and family, and gives him time to enjoy 
other things, to develop himself as a citizen, educate his family, and get 
all there is out of life. 

By the change in means of transportation alone, the life of the farmer 
has been revolutionized. The small touring car has practically eliminated 
the horse for quick transportation to and from the business center. But the 
strangest effect of all is that the horse has not been decreased in price. 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 








30-60 H. Pi Kerosene Tractor 



FARM GAS ENGINES 3 

The coming of the engine has opened so many new fields, and has made life 
so much broader and more profitable on a farm, that the demand for horses 
is greater than it ever was, even though they have been largely replaced by 
engines. Therefore the engine is a real step in the progress of the people, 
and in order to compete successfully with other professions during these 
progressive times, the farmer must be thoroughly equipped with power of a 
mechanical kind. 

Next to gas power, electricity is coming in very rapidly, and will be one 
of the chief sources of power in the future. 



Gas Engine Uses on the Farm. 

A number of uses for the small gas engine are listed below : 



air. compressors 

blowers 

bone cutters 

bottle washers 

bread mixers 

butter workers 

cement mixers 

cement tile and block machines 

churns 

cider mills 

clippers 

corn binders 

corn huskers 

corn pickers 

corn shellers 

corn shredders 

cotton gins 

cream separators 

dish washers 

drill presses 

electric light plants 

elevators 

fanning mills 

feed cutters 

feed mills 

grain binders 

grain dumps 

grain graders 

grindstones 



hay and grain hoists 
hay presses 
honey extractors 
ice cream freezers 
lathes 

lime pulverizers 
meat grinders 
milking machines 
motor boats 
mowing machines 
plowing machines 
potato diggers 
potato sorters 
pumps 
refrigerators 
sewing machines 
silage cutters 
spraying outfits 
stone crushers 
stump pullers 
threshing machines 
tool grinders 
transportation 
vacuum cleaners 
ventilating fans 
washing machines 
well drills 
wood saws 
wood splitters 



The above list is probably nearly complete today, but every year several 
new items will be added. Every farmer does not have this variety. He should 
pick out the ones which are necessary on his farm, study the machinery to be 
driven, and then buy the engine or engines which will most easily do the work. 



4 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Ordinarily a farmer should have a portable engine. If he needs two 
engines one should be stationary. Many farmers have almost as many engines 
as they have horses. By getting them in different sizes and different designs, 
the greater part of the farm labor can be done mechanically. 

GROUPING. 

Instead of having a large barn full of horses to do the various kinds of work, 
the farmer now has a large shop, with a line shaft to which are connected sev- 
eral machines. The shop may be partitioned off so that one part can be 
used as a dairy, another as a wood shed, another as a corn shelling bin, another 
for electric lighting machinery, and so on. It must not be forgotten that the 




6 H. P. Saw Kig at work cutting stove wood from poles. It is just 
as handy at this work as catting up corkwood 

i Plate I 



extension can be run into the home, thus solving the hired girl problem 
by operating the washing machine, the wringer, the churn, and many other 
household labor-saving appliances. Details of the various plans and usages 
will be given in the following chapters. 



Elements of a Gas Engine. 

inc gas engine is an internal combustion engine. By internal combus- 
tion engine is meant that the fuel is burned inside the cylinder. In contrast, 
the steam engine is an external combustion. The fuel is burned outside of 
the boiler, heating the water, thus producing steam, which, in turn, is ad- 
mitted to the cylinder and produces the power. 

Internal combustion engines use such fuel (either gaseous or liquid), 



FARM GAS ENGINES 5 

as natural gas, producer gas, alcohol, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, distillate, or 
crude petroleum. An engine burning any one of these fuels internally is said 
to be a gas engine, that is, it must be converted into a gas before it can be used 
in the engine. Strictly speaking, engines using natural gas, producer gas or 
any artificial gas would be called gas engines, all others, such as gasoline 
engines, alcohol engines, naphtha engines, kerosene engines, etc., being 
named after the kind of liquid used. Of these, gasoline engines are the most 
common. The word has been abbreviated to "Gas Engine" so that in common 
use, "Gas Engine" covers all of these engines. 

Principles of Combustion. 

Burning, as is usually observed and understood, is applied to the combus- 
tion of some liquid or solid, but before these can be burned they must be con- 
verted into a gas or vapor. 

Nearly all fuels are based upon the combinations of carbon and hydrogen. 
Natural and artificial gas, wood, coal, kerosene, and gasoline, are for the most 
part composed of these two materials or elements. In the combustion of solids 
or liquids, they are first heated to a high temperature, liberating the carbon and 
hydrogen which pass off in the form of gas. These then unite with oxygen to 
form carbon dioxide and water. This chemical combination produces heat and 
is known ordinarily as combustion or burning. 

Just as the expansive power of steam is used in the steam engine, the 
expansive power of gas is used in the gas engine. Upon application of heat, 
steam becomes very powerful. The rapid combustion and sudden heating 
of gases in a cylinder by explosion will heat up these gases to such an extent 
that they must expand. 

The Simple Principle of a Gas Engine. 

Therefore if the proper amount of fuel and air be admitted to the cylinder 
in front of the piston and ignited, it will quickly burn, causing heat, raising 
the temperature, which will in turn expand the gases and push the piston to the 
other end of the cylinder. In doing this it accomplishes work. On the return 
stroke the cylinder must be cleaned out, ready for the next charge. On the 
third stroke a new charge is drawn in. On the fourth the new charge is 
compressed ready for ignition. The whole process is repeated. This is, in 
simple terms, the story of the gas engine. 

The Elements of a Gas Engine and Their Duties. 

One must be thoroughly acquainted with the principles above set forth 
and the simple elements of a gas engine before he can operate one and take care 
of it. At first it will seem complex but after a little study and use it will be 
easier to take care of than a horse or cow. 

The engine is composed of: 1st, a cylinder, where the combustion takes 
place and the heat energy is changed into mechanical energy. This is the 



6 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

principal part of the engine. 2nd. Pistons which fit in the engine are free 
to move a limited distance back and forth in the cylinder. 3rd. The connect- 
ing rod, which joins the piston with the crank of the main shaft, thus limit- 
ing the motion of the piston. 4th. On the shaft will be placed one or more 
fly wheels which develop the energy and make the motion of the engine uni- 
form. 5th. The ignition, which in the modern engine is electrical, is used to 
discharge fuel and air in the cylinder. 6th. A governor to control the engine 
and keep it at a uniform speed. 7th. A base or a foundation to support the 
engine and take up the vibrations. 8th. The fuel intake which is controlled by 
the governor regulates as to quantity and the time of admission to cylinder. 
9th. The exhaust valve which is connected with the control mechanism so 
that it will open at the proper time and let out the burned gases. 10th. The 
carburetor which mixes the fuel, either liquid or gases, with a proper amount 
of air. 11th. The lubricating system which carries oil to every part that needs 
lubrication. 12th. The cooling system which consists of a water jacket or an 
especially designed air cooled jacket which carries the excess heat away as fast 
as it is produced. 

The Operation of a Gas Engine. 

There are two distinct classes of the internal combustion engine, the 
four-stroke cycle and the two-stroke cycle. These terms have been abbrevi- 
ated to read four-cycle and two-cycle. In England the former names are still 
used, the abbreviated names being used only in America. The two-cycle engine 
has one explosion for every two strokes of the piston and similarly the four- 
cycle engine produces one explosion for every four strokes or two revolutions. 

The four-cycle engine is the more common of the two and will be given the 
first consideration and the most space. The two-cycle engine is used mainly 
in marine work. 

The events in the operation of a four-cycle engine are as follows: 1st, 
suction; 2nd, compression; 3rd, ignition; 4th, expansion; 5th, exhaust; 6th, 
suction, the same as number 1. 

(1) Suction or Intake Stroke. — With the cylinders clear of any gas and 
the piston at the head end as shown in figure 1, the crank begins to turn, the 
piston recedes and sucks in a charge of gas and air through the intake valve. 
This valve is fitted with a weak spring so that a small suction will open it, 
or in some engines it is fitted up with a mechanism so that it may be opened 
positively by a cam during the period of suction stroke. At the end of the 
suction stroke the intake valve closes and the crank is at the outward end of 
its motion. 

(2) Compression Stroke. — As the wheel turns the piston will return to 
the head end, and both valves being closed the charge will be compressed. 
This is the end of the compression event. 

(3) Ignition. — Shortly before the piston reaches the end of the stroke 
the charge of fuel is ignited or fired, by means of an electric spark. The 
charge is fired before the completion of the compression stroke in order to give 



FARM GAS ENG-INES 




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Compress/or) Stroke 



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Horkma Stroke 



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Exhaust Stroke 







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8 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

time for complete compression before the piston starts on the return or work- 
ing stroke, thus utilizing the full heat energy in the fuel. 

(4) Expansion Stroke. — The outgoing stroke after ignition is caused by 
the high temperature and high pressure due to the combustion of the fuel 
charge. 

This forces the piston to the other end of the cylinder. During this 
stroke the intake valve and exhaust valve are both closed. At the end of 
the stroke the exhaust valve is opened. This is commonly spoken of as the 
"Working Stroke." 

(5) Exhaust Stroke. — This is the last event in the cycle. During this 
stroke the piston forces all of the burned gases out of the cylinder through 
the exhaust ports. At the end of the exhaust stroke the intake valve opens and 
the process is repeated as before. 

In the two-cycle engine operation, on first thought it would appear that 
the two-cycle engine is superior to the four-cycle, as it takes only two strokes 
for one explosion, and the four-cycle requires four strokes. But the losses 
and disadvantages in the construction and operation of the two-cycle render 
this inferior to the four-cycle for most uses. 

The construction of a two-cycle engine is more simple than the four-cycle 
type. It has no valve such as the four-cycle, and the openings are made to open 
and close by the piston covering and uncovering the ports or openings in the cylin- 
der walls as it travels back and forth. 

Types of Two-Cycle Engines. 

There are two types of two-cycle engines, those having two ports and 
those having three ports. Position A, Figure 2, shows the two-port motor, the 
dotted lines on the side of the cylinder showing the position of the intake 
for the three-port design. The two-port would be described as follows : 

Position A shows the piston going up on the compression stroke. This 
is compressing the fuel charges as in the four-cycle engine, and at the same time 
a vacuum is created in the crank casing D. This sucks in a fresh charge of 
gas from the carburetor as shown. The ignition takes place just as in the 
four-cycle, and the expansion stroke follows. In position B the piston is 
shown near the end of the working or expansion stroke. It is seen that during 
the movement from this position to position C, the exhaust event takes 
place partially. At position C the first gas comes from the crank casing D to 
the cylinder, and is deflected upward by the deflecting plate, pushes out the 
old gases ahead of it, and fills the cylinder with a new charge. As the crank 
passes its center and starts up the compression stroke the intake and the 
exhaust ports are closed, and the compression stroke progresses as shown in 
Figure 2. This completes the cycle. 

Three-Port Engine. 

In the three-port engine the fuel intake is placed in the side of the cylinder 
below the exhaust port, so that it is opened and closed by the piston the same way 



FARM GAS ENGINES 




fcf 



?: 



^zzzzz^ 




10 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

that the other ports are, so that when the piston is at the upper end of the com- 
pression stroke the valve is opened and the first gas enters the crank case in 
the same manner as in position A, Figure 2. Aside from this the operations 
are exactly the same as in the two-port cycle. 

These engines may be reversed by changing the time of ignition. Other 
advantages are simplicity, light weight, and cheapness. Some of its disad- 
vantages are that it never has a clean mixture : always some of the burned 
gases are mixed in with the fresh charge. But in well designed engines the 
amount of this mixture is not serious. The explosions being more frequent, 
the cooling and lubricating problems are necessarily harder. 

For general farm use the four-cycle is to be recommended as being more 
reliable and more economical in the long run. 

The Details of a Gas Engine. 

The elements and principal events of gas engine operation have already 
been cited, and it will be unnecessary to repeat them here. A study in detail 
of the parts and process that make the gas engine a success will be taken up. 

Carburetion. 

As previously mentioned, whether gas or liquids are burned in the cylin- 
der, it must be properly prepared first. The liquid must be vaporized and the 
proper amount of air added to support the combustion. In the gas fuel only 
the mixture of air need be added. There are numerous devices for receiving 
the gas, or gasoline or other liquid fuel vaporizing and mixing the vapor 
with air. A carburetor is a mixer of fuel with air. On many engines the car- 
buretor is called a mixer. See Figure 3. 

When using a liquid fuel it must be broken up into fine particles or vaporized. 
Secondly, it must be thoroughly mixed. Thirdly, the proper amount of air 
must be added. 

The operation of mixing is a simple process. The accompanying il- 
lustration will show one way in which it is done. The large pipe is the air 
inlet, and the small one meeting it at right angles is the fuel supply. When 
the air is drawn into the cylinder the fuel is drawn into the passageway by 
the same suction, and as it passes the needle valve it is divided into a thin 
spray. The air picks it up and carries it into the cylinder. The needle valve 
not only breaks up the fuel into a spray, but by its adjustment regulates the 
amount of fuel mixed with the air to make a perfect combustion. 

Most of the air passageway is obstructed at the part where the fuel enters, 
in order to increase the velocity of the air as it passes the fuel inlet, which 
helps to break it up into a finer spray or vapor. 

The liquid fuels which are on the market today do not completely vaporize 
by the above process. Many methods to accomplish this have been invented 
and put on the market. Since gasoline has become so high priced, because 
of its scarcity, the manufacturers, in order to get more of the product have 



FARM GAS ENGINES 



11 




12 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

decreased its quality. This lower grade of gasoline is harder to vaporize than 
the original gasoline used when automobiles and gas engines first came into 
use. 

Various methods of applying heat to the gas are now on the market 
and one of the simplest schemes is to take the air which is used in the mixture 
from off the hot pipes that leave the exhaust chamber. After the engine 
is running and the exhaust has heated the pipes, this method works all right, 
but in cold weather it is hard to start such a device until the carburetor 
and adjacent parts are warm. This can be done with hot cloths or hot 
water. 

Adjusting the Mixture of Fuel and Air. 

As the supply of air for the mixture is drawn from the atmosphere, it will 
be subject to the change of atmospheric conditions. A change in temperature 
will change the volume admitted and also the amount of moisture that may be 
carried by the air. It will also change the vaporizing power as noted above. 
Therefore carburetors are fitted with certain adjustments to change the pro- 
portion of fuel and air to meet atmospheric conditions. A simple carburetor is 
shown in Figure III. 

Also the speed of the engine will vary the suctions so that adjustments 
must be made automatic to give the proper mixture of fuel during high speed 
as well as low. The best carburetors on the market will do this. 

• It is the function of the carburetor or mixer to properly proportion the 
gases before they are turned into the engine. To regulate the speed of the 
engine, the governor will open and close the throttle as the speed is being 
increased or decreased respectively. The throttle is nothing more than a 
damper valve placed in the passageway between the carburetor and the cylin- 
ders. In the hit and miss type of governor, the number of charges taken into 
the cylinder, is controlled to meet variations in load conditions. 

By experiment, it has been found that there is one mixture of air and fuel 
which is the most economical, i. e., one which will produce perfect combustion 
and give out the most power. If more fuel is used, the mixture is too rich and 
will not burn properly, if less fuel is used, the mixture is too lean with practi- 
cally the same result. Either too much or too little is a waste. 

Lean mixtures will cause flames to pass through the air openings, which 
is known as backfiring. Neither will the engine pick up speed when the mix- 
ture is too lean, for it lacks power. 

Back-Firing. 

Back-firing is caused by a lean mixture as explained above. The fuel charge 
burns so slowly in the cylinder that when the intake valve opens on the fol- 
lowing suction stroke, the gas which is still flaminsr ignites the new charge, 
which explodes back through the carburetor * through the air passage. 

To remedy this trouble, open the needle valve to give more fuel or cut 
down the amount of air, which is the same thing. The manufacturer of 



FARM GAS ENGINES 13 

every gas engine will give proper instructions for the regulating or adjust- 
ing of the carburetor for the conditions which are liable to happen during its 
life. 

Rich Mixture and Its Effect. 

When black smoke issues from the exhaust pipe a rich mixture is in- 
dicated. An odor of fresh fuel will also be detected in the waste gases. This 
waste fuel ignites and explodes in the exhaust passages and sometimes blows 
off the muffler. A rich mixture will also heat up the cylinder quickly, and 
the ignition points or spark plugs will become covered with carbon deposits in 
a short time and will make the cylinders miss, a decrease in the amount of 
power resulting. 

To correct this, the process is just opposite to a lean mixture — either close the 
fuel valve or add more air. 

When the mixture is properly proportioned, the exhaust will be clear. 
Do not mistake the blue smoke coming from the exhaust for a rich mixture, 
because this is due to over-lubrication. It is a black smoke which indicates 
too rich a mixture. In kerosene engines a blue smoke may be seen coming 
from the exhaust at times. This will indicate incomplete combustion or 
excess lubrication. 

Conclusion. — The method of the modern manufacturer is to test out the 
mixing values and carburetors of his special engine and if the fuels which he 
recommends are used, there should be no trouble in operating the engine. 
Study carefully the discussion given here, and most cases of trouble will be 
taken care of with the least expense. 

Gas Engine Combustion. 

'The ordinary definition of "combustion" means simply burning. The 
burning of fuel in the gas engine cylinder is the same simple chemical process. 
It takes place under peculiar conditions. Ordinarily one sees these same fuels 
burning in the open with excess of air. But actually the fuel is in excess 
and the burning smokes considerably. In a gas engine cylinder, the mixture 
of fuel and air is so perfectly made that the result of the combustion is a clear 
gas and the time of burning is so sudden that it is called an explosion. 

Fuels. 

All products of petroleum, such as gasoline, kerosene, etc., are composed 
of the compounds of hydrocarbons which are combinations of carbon and 
hydrogen. , These two elements occur in various proportions depending upon 
the specific gravity and the addition of other elements. Atmospheric air is a 
mixture of, approximately, 23 parts by weight of oxygen and 77 parts by weight 
of nitrogen. This is a physical mixture. 

Carbon and hydrogen as a fuel are in chemical combination and in order 
for combustion to take place the combination must be broken up. It is partly 
accomplished by the spray, and partly by intense heat. 



14 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

THE COMBUSTION. 

The air is our chief supply of oxygen. Oxygen is necessary to support 
combustion. This is why air and the fuel are drawn into the cylinder together. 
As soon as they are brought into the cylinder, they are compressed, in order 
to bring the molecules of the oxygen and of the hydrocarbons close together. 
Then by electric spark or some flame the mixture is ignited and an intense 
heat occurs as a result of the combustion of all these elements. The carbon 
and oxygen unite to make carbon dioxide, and the hydrogen unites with the oxy- 
gen to make water. 

It would be ideal if only oxygen could be added to the fuel mixture, but 
it is cheaper to get the oxygen from the air, and since the air contains only 23 
percent oxygen, a large quantity of it must be used. It has been theoretically 
determined that 203 cu. ft. of air are required to burn one pound of gasoline. 
In practice, from 240 to 260 cu. ft. are drawn into the cylinder for the proper 
combustion of the pound of fuel. It has been said before that each engine has 
its own peculiarities. The amount of air and gasoline should be mixed ac- 
cording to its demand. 

Combustion and Explosion. 

The process of combustion in the engine is oftentimes called an explosion. 
This needs an explanation. It is very near an explosion, and in one sense it 
can be said that it is. An explosive compound is a mixture of carbon, hydrogen 
and oxygen chemically, so that there is no necessity for an outside supply 
of oxygen, that is, all of the combustible parts are contained within the chemi- 
cal mixture or compound. When set on fire the chemical change takes place 
without the assistance of any outside influence excepting heat. Now the 
difference is only this : hydrocarbons of the fuel in the gas engine are mixed 
physically with the oxygen of the air, while the hydrocarbons in an explosive 
compound are combined chemically with the oxygen. The explosion is quicker, 
more certain and reliable. The combustion in the gas engine cylinder is slower' 

Timing the Ignition. 

The compression does not take place instantly. The ignition of a charge 
is usually a little bit previous to the time when it is actually needed in order 
to give the flame a chance to spread throughout the whole mixture. There- 
fore, the spark is applied to the mixture a little bit before the piston arrives 
at the compression end of the cylinder. As soon as it has completed its 
motion, combustion will have been completed, the temperature of the gases 
raised to the highest point, and the pressure developed so that the piston will 
be pushed back with maximum speed. 

To the human senses it appears that combustion takes place instanta- 
neously. However, with accurate instruments it will be found that this is not 
true. Some fuels will burn faster than others, and the speed is also affected 
by the volume of the charge, the temperature, and the perfection of the vapori- 
zation and proportioning of the air. Atmospheric changes during the year 



FARM GAS ENGINES 15 

will affect these conditions, and make the starting: and working; of the engine 
erratic at times. 

Cooling the Engine. 

Almost constant burning of fuel inside the engine, at a high temperature, 
heats the cylinder up to two thousand to twenty-five hundred degrees F. 
Therefore it is necessary to provide some means of carrying off this heat. 
Water and air are the two common mediums for doing: this. If these fail to do 
their duty the cylinder will heat up, and before the electric spark will have a 
chance to ignite the fuel charge the heat of compression and the heat of the 
cylinder is likely to discharge it. This occurrence is called pre-ignition or 
premature ignition and is recognized by a knocking: sound. It may be caused 
by four other reasons : 1st, compression too high ; 2nd, glowing carbon or 
glowing sharp points on the cylinder wall ; 3rd, uncertain ignition, and 4th, 
pockets of burning gas in the combustion chamber. These defects will be 
discussed later. 

The Source of Power in Gas Engines. 

The ideal fuel for gas engines is a liquid or solid fuel, which can be easily 
vaporized and mixed perfectly with air to form a combustible vapor. In burn- 
ing it should leave no carbon deposit, nor should it g;ive off any smoke or foul 
gas. This kind of fuel has not been found in practice, although high grades of 
gasoline approach it very nearly. 

Kinds of Fuel. 

The total number of fuels that are available and profitable to use is so 
large that only the most important and common ones will be mentioned. 
Standing first in America are the petroleum products, such as benzine, naphtha, 
gasoline, kerosene, distillate, and crude oil. In the next important group are 
natural gas, illuminating gas, power or producer gas, alcohol, and wood oil. 

The petroleum products are largely obtained from North America. There 
are large deposits in Russia, and many other countries, but the American fields 
easily supply half the world. There are two kinds of petroleum by-products in 
the United States, and in general the Mississippi .divides the fields containing the 
two products-. The Eastern field contains the products having a paraffin base, 
and the Western field contains a product having an asphalt base. Paraffin base 
means the character of the product left after the gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, and 
distillate have been driven off by heating. Along the Mississippi Valley the two 
kinds of oil are mixed. 

Composition of Crude Petroleum. 

To the user of a gas engine, the exact composition of crude oil is not of 
much interest except in its broad economic sense. It will be noticed from what fol- 
lows that certain parts of the crude oil are more valuable than others. The sim- 
ple conclusion would be for an engine which could use the most available product 
to gain by getting the cheap fuel. In Figure 4 is graphically shown the pro- 
portion of gasoline, distillate, lubricating oils, asphalt residue and waste from the 
Western petroleum. Gasoline is seen to be a very small part, and it has therefore 
become high priced as the demand for it increased. Kerosene, which is about one- 



16 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 




Figt/nc 4- 



FARM GAS ENGINES 17 

half of the total product, in view of its availability, is cheaper than gasoline. This 
will help to explain some of the differences between gasoline and kerosene on the 
market today. 

Separation of Petroleum Products. 

It will be interesting to know how these products are separated. The process 
is known as "fractional distillation." Crude oil as it comes from the earth is a 
thick, heavy black liquid. This liquid is put into large vessels and heat is applied 
to the exterior, the temperature being maintained constant at various points along 
the line. That is, the whole mass will be heated up to the temperature at which 
the gasoline vaporizes, and will be held at that temperature until all of the gasoline 
has passed off as a gas. It is led through a series of tubes and cooled and con- 
densed until it will flow into another vessel. Then the mass is heated again to a 
higher temperature, at which kerosene will vaporize, and kept at the temperature 
for some time, and the kerosene is taken oft in the same way as the gasoline, and so 
on for the lubricating oils. The paraffin base of the residue is used directly in 
many commercial fields, or it may be further distilled, and produce vaseline and 
a number of other well known petroleum products. 

The original gasoline of a few years ago was 3 percent. The demand has be- 
come so great for fuel that some of the higher grades of kerosene have been added 
to the gasoline, thus decreasing the quality of gasoline, but increasing the amount 
available. Recent inventions have brought in new methods of "cracking" some of 
the lower distillates and producing gasoline. This will help to save the gasoline 
as a fuel of the future. Perhaps further progress will soon be made along that 
line and this most wonder-fuel will be saved for us through many years to come. 

Petroleum Products Classified. 

Petroleum products can not be classified by the temperatures at which they 
are distilled. On the market they are known by their weight or specific gravity. 
The following diagram will show the correct approximate weight of petroleum 
products and the various distillates, and will explain what is meant on the market 
by tests of 70 or 80, etc. : 

The Baume Scale. 

The Baume Scale is of French origin and was invented to make a more con- 
venient form. As an example, suppose that a gasoline had a specific gravity of .9 
and also has a Baume reading of 75 degrees or 75 degrees Baume. The terms 
Baume gravity and degrees Baume are the same. To convert Baume to specific 
gravity or specific gravity to Baume the two following formulas may be used : 

140 

Baume gravity = 130 

Specific gravity 

140 
Specific gravity 



Baume gravity -f- 130 



18 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



CORRECT APPROXIMATE WEIGHT OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS. 



Product 



Petroleum ether . 
Gasoline 



Naphtha . 



Kerosene 



Distillate . 



Degrees 


Specific 


Pounds in 


Baume 


Gravity 


One Gallon 


95 


.6222 


5.18 


90 


.6363 


5.30 


85 


.6511 


5.42 


85 


.6511 


5.42 


80 


.6666 


5.55 


75 


.6829 


5.69 


70 


.7000 


5.83 


69 


.7035 


5.86 


68 


.7070 


5.89 


67 


.7106 


5.92 


66 


.7142 


5.95 


65 


.7179 


5.98 


64 


.7216 


6.01 


63 


.7253 


6.04 


62 


.7290 


6.07 


62 


.7290 


6.07 


61 


.7329 


6.11 


60 


.7368 


6.14 


59 


.7407 


6.17 


58 


.7446 


6.20 


57 


.7486 


6.24 


56 


.7526 


6.27 


55 


.7567 


6.30 


54 


.7608 


6.34 


53 


.7650 


6.37 


52 


.7692 


6.41 


51 


.7734 


6.44 


50 


.7777 


6.48 


49 


.7821 


6.52 


48 


.7865 


6.55 


47 


.7909 


6.59 


46 


.7954 


6.63 


46 


.7594 


6.63 


45 


.8000 


6.66 


44 


.8040 


6.70 


43 


.8092 


6.74 


42 


.8139 


6.78 


42 


.8139 


6.78 


41 


.8187 


6.82 


40 


.8235 


6.86 


39 


.8284 


6.90 


38 


.8333 


6.94 


37 


.8383 


6.98 


36 


.8433 


7.03 


35 


.8484 


7.07 


34 


.8536 


7.11 


33 


.8588 


7.15 


32 


.8641 


7.20 


31 


S695 


7.24 


30 


.8750 


7.29 


29 


.8805 


7.34 


28 


.8860 


7.38 



FARM GAS ENGINES 19 

Petroleum Fuels Now on the Market. 
As mentioned previously, the great demand for gasoline in the past decade 
has forced the manufacturers to decrease in quality in order to get more quantity. 
It is quite common now to get gasoline as low as 60 Baume and in some extreme 
cases they are listing it as low as 5*6 degrees, with kerosene as high as 48 degrees 
Baume. This fuel can be used in the small farm engines just as well as the high 
grade fuels with the exception that the starting is a little more difficult. If in- 
structions to warm the fuel and engine are followed strictly, there will be no 
trouble in using them. 

Heating Value of Petroleum Products. 

Although the commercial value of petroleum products is easily determined by 
the degrees Baume, it is another one of the properties which really decides the 
matter. Fortunately the higher degrees Baume correspond exactly with the higher 
heat values of the fuels. Heat is measured in "British thermal units" (B. t. u.). 
A British thermal unit is understood to be the quantity of heat required to raise 
the temperature of one pound of pure water, one degree Fahrenheit Below will 
be given a table showing the B. t. u. value of the petroleum products before listed. 

Although the number of heat units vary in the different products, the avail- 
able power from each engine using that particular product seems to be about the 
same. The efficiency of the machine depends more upon the design of engine than 
upon the kind of fuel. 

Power Rating of the Gas Engine. 

Manufacturers of tools for any industry have certain terms which have 
special meanings, to describe the properties of their products. It is difficult for 
them to use any other terms, and even in talking to a layman, these terms become 
so familiar to the manufacturer that he feels because they are so familiar to 
him they must be to every one else. When he comes in contact with a layman, 
who has not encountered these terms, there is necessarily some confusion. The 
layman can see by his manner that he is expected to know what the terms mean, 
and rather than embarass his friend he will give his attention and assent to many 
things which he does not understand. Such terms as "power rating," "piston 
displacement," "Horse Power," "Brake Horse Power," "Draw Bar Horse Power," 
"Foot-pound," "work," "power," etc., will be defined here in a simple way and thus 
bring about an understanding between two friends. 

Power rating is a term used to express the strength of a gas engine, or the 
amount of work it will do in a given time. 

Displacement in cubic inches, is that volume of the cylinder through which 
the piston passes. It is the same as the volume of the cylinder whose height is the 
length of the stroke, whose diameter is the diameter of the piston. Automobile en- 
gines which are qualifying for races must not allow piston displacement to be 
over a certain number of cubic inches, so that the best car will be the one which 
will make the best use of the fuel in a given space. Competition, therefore, is be- 
tween quality of design and not in size of car or engine. 

Power. 

Power is defined as the amount of work that can be done in a unit of time. 

Work is a unit produced by a force acting through a distance and is measured 
in foot-pounds. That is, a foot-pound is the amount of work required to raise one 
pound a foot high. 



20 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Remember that work and power are not the same. Work does not take into 
consideration the time element, but power does. 

The unit of measurement of power is defined by James Watt as the rate of 
doing 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. 

Indicator or Indicated, and Drawbar Horse Power. 

Mechanical engineers have a method of measuring the amount of power ex- 
pended by the burning gases in the cylinder. The instrument they used is called 
the "Indicator" and the horse power determined is the indicated horse power. 

Horse power referred to above is not that which is available for use, so that 
power is measured again at the fly-wheel. The power developed by the engine and 
transmitted to the belt is measured by means of a Prony Brake. The Prony 
Brake is clamped on the fly-wheel much the same as shown in the figure and the 
bar weighted so as to give the engine a uniform motion consuming the maximum 
amount of fuel. The calculations are then made giving the amount of horse power 
delivered. 

The difference between the last two horse powers will be the mechanical fric- 
tion of the engine parts. 

In motor vehicles, such as automobiles, tractors, etc., another kind of horse 
power is used. This is called the "draw bar horse power," and it measures the 
pulling power of a tractor or motor vehicle at the draw bar. Usually the draw bar 
horse power is about half of the brake horse power, that is, half the power is lost 
in the transmission and friction of gears and bearings. 

Calculating the Engine Horse Power. 

The horse power of engines may be determined by formula, but this method 
is inexact unless the exact quality of the fuel is known. However, for ordinary use 
it will give an approximate value. The formula for gasoline burning engines 
is as follows: 

DLN 
0.5 



Horsepower = 16,400 

and for kerosene burning engines is 

D 2 LN 

0.75 

Horsepower = 21,875 

D is the diameter of the cylinder; L is the length of the stroke; N is the 
number of revolutions per minute. Diameter and length are measured in inches. 
This will give the power for a single cylinder engine. When more than one 
cylinder is used, multiply the results by the number of cvlinders. 

The Best Way to Get Horse Power. 

The only sure way to know the horse power of the engine is to test it. The 
Prony Brake or drawbar spring either can be used to determine the respective 
kind of horse power. 



FARM GAS ENGINES 21 

Formulas will be found unreliable, since all they can do is to give the dimen- 
sions of the cylinder, and some constant representing the quality of the fuel. 
One automobile concern has been able to almost double the power of its engines 
without increasing the size. This is accomplished by greater refinement in design. 

Brake Test for Gasoline Engines. 

The farmer often would like to know whether the manufacturer has given 
him all that he has paid for. This he can easily determine himself by the fol- 
lowing method. Construct a Prony Brake as shown in Figure 5. This can be 
done by anyone with four pieces of 2-inch lumber, a piece of strap iron, a platform 
scale, nails, screws, blocks, etc., as shown. The friction blocks that are set against 
the wheel should be of soft wood and a little wider than the wheel. It is con- 
venient to notch them so they will not slip off sideways. 

Operation. 

Place the brake on the wheel as shown, resting the shoe on the platform 
scale and with the wing nut on the strap loose, to balance the platform scale. 
Start the engine while the brake is loose. Slowlv tighten up the wing nut, at 
the same time putting on more power. Keep the platform scale balanced. When 
the full amount of fuel has been admitted, adjust the wing nut so that uniform 
speed will be maintained. With a speedometer or counter determine the number 
of revolutions per minute. By using the following formula the brake horse power 
will be determined. Compare this with the manufacturer's statement of the brake 
horse power. 

(W) (A) (N) 

H. P. = 

5252 

Where W = Weight registered on scales. 
A = Lever arm (see figure). 
N = Number of revolutions per minute. 

Follow the directions carefully. If one has never made the test before he 
should proceed with caution. Be sure that the brake is put on the fly-wheel so 
that it turns in the direction indicated by the arrow. To make an accurate reading 
follow the formula. 

If the engine should test higher than it is rated of course this will please. 
It should not be run at its maximum rating, however. Usually the manufactur- 
ers have tested out the engine and considered the rating at which it will be the 
most economical. Engines should be run at nearly their full horse power but in 
no case should they be overloaded. 

The Need for Testing the Engine. 

It is not so much to compare the rated horse power with the actual as it is a 
matter of maintenance that the brake test should be used. If the owner has 



22 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 




FARM GAS ENGINES 23 

tested the engine when it is new, then once or twice a year repeating the process 
he will always have an idea as to the condition of the engine. He will know 
whether it is losing strength or gaining. In case he finds the engine is losing its 
power he should investigate immediately. (See chapter on Troubles.) 



Economy Test. 

Manufacturers will not only rate the horse power of the engines, but also say 
on what fuel the horse power can be maintained for a certain number of hours. 

Proceed as follows : After determining the brake horse power test, set the 
scale beam at the rated horse power loaded, and by adjusting the wing nut keep 
the scale beam balanced and run the engine for half an hour or an hour. At 
the end of this period of preliminary running, if everything is found to be uniform, 
measure the amount of fuel by weighing, and proceed with the test, noting the 
time it takes to uSe up a weighed amount of fuel. The amount of fuel used may 
be that which the manufacturer claims will do the work in the given time. This 
will be found the simplest way to run the economy test. 

The Power House or Shop on the Farm. 

Economical use of power on the farm is obtained mainly by concentrating 
it in one plant as near as possible. Of course there are some activities that 
must be handled by individual plants, such as a tractor for plowing, hauling, etc. 
This chapter will be given over to things which can be done mainly by a station- 
ary plant. The investment in the engine is oftentimes a burden, and unless it 
is kept at work it will not pay. An idle farm hand is certainly a losing proposi- 
tion. An idle engine will of course give similar results. 

Mistakes are often made in applying farm engines to work which is only 
done once or twice a year and over a short period of time, and leaving such work 
as is done every day to man power. This is a very serious mistake. Such work 
as pumping water, feed grinding, washing, weighing, churning, cream separating, 
dish-washing, milking, etc., should be the first ones to receive consideration. 
After the daily routine has been taken care of the special uses may be taken 
up in order of their importance. 

One of the first requirements for the proper use of an engine on the farm is 
a power house. In one corner of this power house should be a small room closed 
off with a dust-proof partition, in which the engine shall be placed. It should be 
placed on a solid foundation, with the fuel tank, water tank, etc., placed in the 
most advantageous position. The power may be transmitted by means of a line 
shaft or by an electric motor generator set much cheaper than the engine could 
be moved around from place to place as needed. The building should be made 
long, and narrow if necessary, with a line shaft running- the full length as shown 
in cut. Partitions can be placed between different types of machines. Some 
are necessarily dusty, and should be separated from the rest. 



24 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Care. 

Too much cannot be said in regard to the care of the machinery, especially 
the gas -engine. There is nothing that will depreciate when exposed to weather 
more than a gas engine. It would be a better investment in every way to leave 
the gas engine in a well protected building and transmit the power by line shaft 
and belting or by electrical arrangement, than to continually move the engine 
and necessarily expose it to the elements. 

Location of the Power House. 

If a great amount of the power is used in connection with the barn, it should 
be located nearest the barn. If a connection with the house is impossible with 




a line shaft, and the expense too great to do it electrically, another small engine 
is usually the most "economical way for handling that trouble. The power to 
operate washers, sewing machines, etc., in the house are very small compared with 
that necessary for feed grinders, milking machines, buzz saws, etc. 

Design of the Power House. 

It is often necessary to build an entire new house, and this is the most ad- 
visable if funds will permit. In the beginning a section of the barn or wood shed 
might be used. After a small concrete mixer is installed the blocks can be made 
and as the farmer is not very busy at certain times of the year he should build 
the shop and move in at a convenient time. Considerable care should be given 
to the design of such a house, because changes are expensive. As has been said 
before, the building should be so made and arranged as to separate the various 
kinds of uses of the power and to fully protect the engine in a separate room. 
Diagrams are shown giving the ideal conditions. Of course these cannot be 
maintained in every place, but it will give some idea as to the best, and towards 
what one should work. 



FARM GAS ENGINES 



25 



Equipment of the Power House. 

After a satisfactory house has been built it should not be expensive to add 
the equipment and connect up the power with the machines to be used. A good 
buyer will look around the junk man's iron and steel pile and oftentimes find 
pieces of shafting- and pulleys which he can get for a very small price and which 
will answer the purpose satisfactorily. 

Shafting. 

Cold rolled steel shafting is the best for this purpose. In the table below 
is given the size of shaft, revolutions per minute, and horse power generated or 
transmitted. Following this table will be found another table showing the amount 
of horse power the different widths and thicknesses of belts will transmit with 
speed of a hundred feet of belt per minute. 



HORSE POWER OF SHAFTS FOR GIVEN DIAMETER AND SPEED. 



Diameter 








Revolutions 


per Minute 








of Shaft 






































Inches 


100 


125 


150 


175 


200 


225 


250 


300 


350 


400 


I- 3 - 

1 16 


2.4 


3.0 


3.6 


4.2 


4.4 


5.4 


6.0 


7.2 


8.4 


9.6 


1 -L 

- 1 16 


4.3 


5.4 


6.5 


7.6 


8.6 


9.8 


10.8 


13.0 


15.2 


17.2 


1 ii 

1 16 


6.5 


8.0 


9.7 


11.2 


13.0 


14.6 


16.0 


19.4 


22.4 


26.0 


1 IS 


10.0 


12.5 


15.0 


17.5 


20.0 


22.5 


25.0 


30.0 


35.0 


40.0 


9_3_ 
& 16 


14.0 


17.8 


21.0 


24.5 


28.0 


31.5 


35.6 


42.0 


49.0 


56.0 



HORSE POWER BELTING WILL TRANSMIT. 



Width 
of Belt 


H. P. per 100 Feet 
Belt-Speed 


Width 
of Belt 
Inches 


H. P. per 100 Feet 
Belt-Speed 


Width 
of Belt 
Inches 


H. P. per 100 Feet 
Belt-Speed 


Inches 


Single 
Belt 


Double 
Belt 


Single 
Belt 


Double 
Belt 


Single 
Belt 


Double 
Belt 


1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 


.09 
.18 
.27 
.36 
.45 
.55 
.64 
.73 


.18 

.36 

.55 

.73 

.91 

1.09 

1.27 

1.46 


9 
10 
11 
12 
14 
16 
18 


.82 
.91 
1.00 
1.09 
1.27 
1.45 
1.64 


1.64 
1.82 
2.00 
2.18 
2.55 
2.91 
3.27 


20 
22 
24 
28 
32 
36 
40 


1.82 
2.00 
2.18 
2.55 
2.91 
3.27 
3.64 


3.64 
4.00 
4.36 
5.09 

5.82 
6.55 

7.27 



Pulleys. 

The local hardware man or implement dealer will be able to supply all the 
materials necessary from stock. If not you can easily order them. Use split 
wood pulleys, as they are most convenient to take off and put on when changes 
are necessary. However, the driving pulleys and any such pulleys as may 
be needed near the end of the shaft could be made of cast iron or steel, as these 
will be easily removable from the end of the shaft, and be more permanent than 
the wood. 



26 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Spacing the Hangers. 

The hangers of the shaft should be spaced close enough to prevent any 
sagging, and especially should hangers be near heavy pulleys or pulleys with 
heavy belts carrying big loads. An extra hanger is of small importance in cost 
and will be very valuable in maintaining the shaft and bearing because if a shaft 
is allowed to bend too much it burns away the bearing and will ruin the shaft. An 
extra hanger or two will always prevent this. 

Machines and Line Shaft. 

The machines should always be placed with respect to the line shaft so 
that the belting will make an angle of about forty-five degrees with the horizontal. 
The distance from the pulley to the machine should be from eight to ten times 
the diameter of the largest pulley. 




Reliable Shop Power 



Set machine so that the center lines of the shaft of the machine and the 
line shaft are parallel so that the center lines of the pulleys will coincide. 

The Engine and the Machines. 

If possible place the largest machines or those requiring the most power near 
the engine. In transmitting the power the line shaft is twisted. The work of 
twisting the shaft takes up some of the power of the engine, and consequently, 
the shorter the shaft the less power will be lost this way. 



Managing the Power Plant. 

After the power house, machines, and engine have been placed, another very 
vital problem arises. The engine of course is large enough to drive the largest 
machines and may be made large enough to drive more than one of the large 
machines, if it is necessary during a day's use to put two machines in operation at 
the same time. Bear this in mind, that the engine should be run at its rated 



FARM GAS ENGINES 27 

capacity if possible. Then it will consume the least amount of fuel per horse 
power hour. Therefore arrange to have one or two of the larger machines and 
several of the smaller machines running at the same time. Farm work may be 
managed to bring about this result. Also the caretaker of the machines and 
engine will find it possible to take care of several machines as well as one. Then 
the engine and one machine would not require all of his time and what was not 
necessary would not be lost. 

A speedometer or counter should be one of the tools about the power house. 
This is a convenient piece of apparatus shown in Figure 6. 

Pulleys, Speeds and Sizes. 

The calculation of pulleys, speeds and sizes is a very simple matter after 
the speed of the engine and the speed of the machines are shown. 
There are two kinds of pulleys, the driving pulley and the driven pulley. 
The driving pulley is the one at the engine or source of power and the 
driven pulley is at the machine or where the power is being used. The 
speed of the pulley will be represented in revolutions per minute 
(RPM). The diameter of the pulley will be called "D." When it 
is the driven pulley to have a subscript (m) and when it is the driving 
pulley it will have the subscript (p) ; (m) standing for machine and 
(p) for power. The speed will be indicated by (RPM), subscript used 
the same as for diameter of pulleys. Four formula? will be given as 
follows : 

1 D -=D ( RFM) m 
P m (RPM)p * 

2. (RPM) — D m (RPM) m. 

m D 

3. D =D OR™) • 

m P(RPM)^ 

4. (RPM)^( RPM V 

m r> t> 
m 

TROUBLES. 

Gas engines have a reputation for causing trouble, which they are fast over- 
coming. Many users have little or no complaint to make. Many instruction 
books list the parts causing trouble instead of the trouble. In this discussion 
the operator will observe the symptoms of the trouble and find the remedy listed 
under that heading. 

Gas Engine Troubles. 

1. Engine will not crank — engine stuck. 2. Engine will not start. 3. Low 
power — loss of power. 4. Misfiring. 5. Misfiring in one cylinder. 6. Sudden 
stop. 7. Back-firing. 8. Irregular running. 9. Overheating in cylinder. 10. 




28 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Pre-ignition or pounding in cylinder. 11. Crank case explosions — two-cycle. 12. 
Smoke. 13. Engine gradually slows down and stops. 14. Excessive vibration. 
15. Cam shaft rattles. 16. Wheezing scraping sounds. 17. Knocking and 
pounding — regular. 18. Irregular knocks. 19. Speed variation. 

The above troubles will be taken up in detail and the cause or causes will 
be given and remedies for each. 

It is suggested that the operator of a motor first look over the list above 
and find which one of the main troubles he is having, then turn the pages ahead 
which take up such trouble in detail. Under each of the main headings will be 
found the causes with their remedies. 

Troubles Analyzed. 

Hard to Start. — The engine may refuse to start for the following reasons : 
hot bearings, overheated piston, water frozen piston cylinder, bolts rubbing on 
base or oil shields, friction clutch holding load on engine, broken gears and 
wedges, water in cylinder, obstacles blocking wheel or gears, broken crank shaft, 
and dry bearing or rusted piston. 

Hot bearings may be caused by tightness, poor lubrication, scored bearing sur- 
faces, bent or sprung shaft, poor alignment, or shaft out of round. If bearings are 
tight, loosen them. If they are poorly lubricated, put on some more oil. If the 
bearing surfaces are scored, they will need to be put in a machine and machined 
until the scores are removed. It might be necessary to put in new bushings. If 
the shaft is bent or sprung, it must be taken to a machinist and straightened. The 
poor alignment may be corrected by adjusting the shaft and bearings. If these are 
not adjustable, take them to a machinist for correction. If the main shaft is out 
of round, it should be given to a machinist and turned to a true surface and new 
bearing fitted. 

If the piston is stuck due to overheating, first cool the cylinder, then add 
more oil and decrease the load. Arrange to have the cooling system supply a 
larger quantity of cold water to prevent happening again. 

If the cylinder leaks and the water is frozen the best thing to do is to pour 
hot water in the radiator or the water cooling tank to warm up the whole machine. 

Bolts rubbing on the base or oil shields. The bolts will have to be filed down 
so as to miss the base, or the oil shield may be bent out of place. 

If the friction clutch is holding the engine, it should be uncovered and loosened. 

If broken gears give trouble, they will have to be taken off and replaced. 

If there is any obstacle or locking of wheels or gears this can be sometimes 
determined without taking off the gear casing from the fact that the gears will turn 
one way and will not turn the other. The gear casing may be taken off an'd the 
gears inspected. Look for other troubles first. 

Open the crank case and see if the crank shaft is all right, it may be broken. 
In that case a new crank shaft will have to be secured. 

If the engine has been standing a long time, the bearings may be dry or rusted 
and a thorough dismantling and cleaning up will be necessary and plenty of oil 
added. 

Starting Troubles. — The engine may refuse to start for the following 
reasons: the fuel valve closed in tank, no gasoline in the tank, gas shut off at 



FARM GAS ENGINES 29 

meter, battery or magneto switch open, broken or disconnected magneto wire, 
dirty electrodes, broken ignitor springs, weak batteries, magneto not generating, 
foul spark plugs, short circuit, defective spark coil, defective timer, storage bat- 
teries, no compression indicator, carburetor trouble due to poor mixture, cold 
weather carburetor trouble, high altitude, air leaks in cylinder, vibrator on high 
tension spark coil may be out of action. 

If the engine refuses to start, investigate the fuel supply first, then the mag- 
neto and battery switch. If these are found all right, see if there is a broken con- 
nection, or dirty electrode, or a broken ignitor spring. Test the batteries and 
magneto for weakness. Take out the spark plug and see if it is clean ; there may 
be a speck of carbon between the two points. Be sure that the electric wires are 
not short circuited or crossed in some way. The spark coil may be defective, and 
if it is, it should be taken to an electrician for repairs. Open the timer and see 
if the contacts are all right. The piston may leak and give low compression. 
Due to a sudden change in weather or to tinkering, the carburetor may be im- 
properly adjusted and the mixture not properly made. If there are any leaks in 
the cylinder between the carburetor and the cylinder, these should be closed up, 
as a certain amount of air will get in. Watch the vibrator. It may be out of 
order. When the engine is turned over see that the vibrator buzzes. 

No Power or Loss of Power. — Power loss trouble may be brought about 
by the fuel valve being partly closed, the air damper closed, compression release 
cam being left in "starting" position, throttle left in "starting" position, retarded 
sparks reducing power, advanced spark causing excessive loss of power and 
pounding, weak batteries, vibrator adjustment, spark plugs foul, foul ignitor on 
make and break system, defective timer, clogged muffler, long exhaust pipe or 
exhaust has short bend, magneto troubles, lack of oil, hot bearings, crank case leak- 
age on two-cycle engines, and carburetor troubles. 

Fuel valves, dampers, etc., may jar shut or out of position. These should be 
inspected when the power seems to be varying. Note and see if all the adjustments 
have been changed from starting position to running position. A retarded spark 
will reduce the power and an advanced spark will cause pounding and also reduc- 
tion of power. Weak batteries will give a poor spark and reduce the power. Test 
the vibrator adjustment and see that it is working. Investigate the spark plugs and 
ignitors and see if they are fouled. The timer may be out of adjustment or con- 
tacts not clean. 

If the muffler is clogged up with soot or if the exhaust pipe has too many 
bends, it will reduce power. Test the magneto. Look at the supply of oil. If the 
bearings are hot, cool them with cold water and add oil. If the crank case leaks in 
a two-cycle engine, it must be closed. Inspect the carburetor and see if its adjust- 
ments are O. K. 

If there is a leakage in the compression, it may be found by turning the en- 
gine over dead center on the compression stroke. If it passes easy, there is a leak. 
This should be investigated and stopped up by new rings or machining. 

Too cold water on the water jacket will reduce the power. For gasoline en- 
gines the water should be about 160 degrees, and for kerosene 200 degrees F. 

The valves should be inspected for timing. 



30 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Warm air intake will reduce the mixture in the cylinder, and thus reduce the 
power. 

High altitudes will reduce the output of engines. 

Worn cams, rollers, and timing gears will change the timing and reduce the 
power. When the valve opening is too small, it will cause a back pressure and 
loss of power. 

If the spring is too stiff on the intake valve, not enough fuel will get in. 

Valves may be stuck in the guides, especially if the oiling is not well done. 
The magneto may be out of time and the valve gear worn. 

Misfiring. — Misfiring may be caused by loose wires or dirty connections, 
swinging ground wire caused by poor insulation, a broken wire, weak or exhausted 
batteries, poorly adjusted vibrator on high tension system, foul spark plugs, dirty 
electrodes, moisture causing short circuit, magneto out of order, powerless some- 
times caused from misfiring, defective or short circuited spark coils, defective 
timer, run down storage batteries, water in gasoline, worn valve gear, leaky ex- 
hause valve, poor mixture of fuel and air, air leaks between carburetor and 
cylinder, valves out of time, leaky automatic intake valve, compression leaks, 
empty fuel tanks, spark gap too large in spark plugs. 

The above causes for misfiring suggest their own remedy except in a few 
cases. The adjustment of the vibrator may be done while the engine is running. 
The defects may be determined by listening to the buzz when the engine is stopped 
on the firing position. If the buzz is uniform and continuous the vibrator is prob- 
ably all right. If not it must be adjusted. Foul or dirty parts must be cleaned. 
By inspecting the timer, note particularly that the moving parts are well cleaned 
and that they have a good contact at every turn. In case of water in the gasoline, 
the tank should be emptied, the carburetor emptied and a complete new supply in- 
stilled. Leaky exhaust valves can be determined by turning* the engine over on 
compression. If the compression is weak and there is a hissing sound in the ex- 
haust valve, it indicates a leak. This may be corrected by cleaning but as a last 
resort they can be reground with emery. Air leaks between the carburetor and 
cylinder may be determined by listening closely to the intake valve and intake 
manifold. To correct, the manifold should be taken off and repacked. If the 
valves are out of time, the gears operating the cams will have to be taken off and 
readjusted. Look at the spark plug and see if the spark gap is too large. This can 
be determined by a test. 

Misfiring in Cylinders. — Misfiring in one cylinder may be caused by this 
cylinder having a heavier carbon deposit than any other, or one cylinder may have 
a leak, or it may be out of time, or a poor contact in the timer, or it may have a 
loose wire lead to the misfiring cylinder, or a sooted plug, or the magneto distribu- 
tor may be fouled with dust, or one vibrator may be stuck. All of the above causes 
are practically self-explanatory. Where there are poor contacts these should be 
corrected by piping or cleaning. Where the wires are loose, they should be 
tightened. 

Sudden Stopping. — Sudden stopping is caused when the ignition switch 
is jarred open, the fuel exhausted in the tank, wires broken, loose connections of 
the wires, carburetor nozzle clogged with dirt, fuel pipe clogged leading to the 
carburetor, timer broken, or defective magneto, hot bearings bind the shaft, or 
defective ignitor, or water in the gasoline, or hot cylinder when the piston is seized, 
no oil, or a poor mixture of oil, it is hard to find such troubles as open switches, 



FARM GAS ENGINES 31 

broken wires or connections, etc., except by opening the casings or protecting cov- 
erings and inspecting. The first thing of course is to investigate the control 
switches and fuel connections. Try to turn the engine over and if it will not turn, 
the trouble is probably a hot bearing or a hot cylinder. These should be cooled 
with cold water and properly oiled and if any damage has been done to them 
it should be corrected before using again. 

Back-firing. — Back-firing is caused by a poor mixture due to carburetor 
adjustment, retarded spark, clogged carburetor nozzle or fuel pipe, leaky inlet valve 
on engine, air leaks in cylinder, or intake valve, wide open throttle at full load, on 
low speed may be caused by admitting too much air to the carburetor, valves out 
of time, or a defective timer on high tension system, and by weak batteries. When 
troubled with back-firing first try enriching the mixture by cutting off air supply 
and adding more fuel. If this corrects the trouble, a poor mixture was the cause. 
Try advancing the spark. If neither of these will cure the trouble, investigate the 
fuel supply to the carburetor. Test for leaks by putting on compression. If none 
of these will answer inspect the timing system and see if the timing gear has been 
placed correctly and last, test the batteries. 

Irregular Running. — Irregular running results from broken wire, dirty 
timer, sticking coil vibrator high tension system, worn make and break mech- 
anism, loose timer control rods, water in gasoline, clogged carburetor nozzle, 
weak exhaust valve spring or broken springs, air leaks between carburetor and 
cylinder, worn cams or cam shaft on multi-cylinder engine as well as a 
twisted shaft or loose gears. The above causes are mostly due to worn parts 
or negligence. These can be corrected by thorough inspection and over- 
hauling of the engina. 

Overheating in the Cylinder. — Overheating in the cylinder will result 
from a retarded spark, too rich a mixture, lack of oil in the cylinder, poor 
water circulation due to the jacket, poor compression, insufficient valve lift, 
clogged exhaust pipe, clogged muffler, clogged radiator, defective circulating 
pump, tight piston, lime deposits in cylinder, overload on the engine, and a 
closed water supply valve. 

What to Do With an Overheated Cylinder. — Advance the spark, and if 
this does not remedy it, try enriching the mixture. Next inspect the oil in 
the cylinder. Inspect the pump and water circulation around the jacket, and 
try the compression. Then open the valve edge and see if the lift is sufficient. 
Next inspect the exhaust pipe, muffler and radiator. If the engine will not 
turn over, the piston is probably tight. Cool the piston while the engine is 
still hot and this will loosen it. If none of these will do, probably the engine 
is overloaded. Inspect the water supply valve. 

Pre-ignition or Deep Pounding in the Cylinder. — Pre-ignition or pounding 
in the cylinder is caused by too much lubricating oil forming a deposit, a rich 
mixture forming a deposit, overheated cylinders especially in air-cooled en- 
gines, sharp edges in combustion chamber, deposit in cylinders, and deposits 
in kerosene engines are usually formed by running with a cold cylinder, or 
by having the intake air too cold. 

What to Do. — Open the cylinder and see if there are any deposits. If 
there are, use the methods already described to clean them. If there are any 



32 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

sharp edges in the combustion chamber, file them off. They may be left to 
grow and cause pre-ignition. 

Crank Case Explosions in Two-Cycle Engines. — This will be caused by 
retarded spark or a poor mixture due to carburetor adjustment. Test both of 
these and see if the trouble is not eliminated. 

Smoke. — Black smoke is caused by too much gasoline or too rich a mix- 
ture, light colored smoke is caused by an excess of oil fed to the cylinder. 
Either of these can be remedied by taking care of the carburetor or the oil supply. 

Engine Gradually Slows Down and Stops. — This may be caused by 
weak or exhausted batteries, poor mixture due to carburetor adjustment, over- 
load on the engine, magneto slipping or governor out of order, or overheated 
bearings. 

Test your batteries. Enrich the mixture. If this does not help, take off 
some of the load, then try the magneto and see if it is slipping and put hand 
on the bearings and see if they are hot. 

Excessive Vibration. — Excessive vibration may be caused by poorly 
balanced engine crank shaft, twisted cam shaft may change valve timing and 
cause an uneven application of power, or an uneven wear on the cams or push 
rods may give an uneven application of power, or a defective timer may fire 
the cylinders at unequal periods, or the carburetor not situated at equal dis- 
tances from the cylinders may be the cause of the vibration. To correct this 
inspect the crank shaft and cam shaft especially as to wear. A machinist only 
can remedy the wear by machining and rebushing. If none of these are the 
trouble, note the position of the carburetor and change if necessary. 

Cam Shaft Rattle. — The cam shaft rattles because of retarded spark, or 
loose cam shaft bearings or gears, or loose cam rollers or pins. To remedy this, 
advance the spark, tighten up cam shaft bearings or cam rollers or pins. 

Wheezing and Scraping Sound. — A wheezing and scraping sound will be 
caused by broken piston rings, dry piston due to lack of oil, vibration of aux- 
iliary air valve on carburetor, tight piston, overheated cylinders, or fly-wheel 
scraping on metal shields. When a wheezing or scraping sound is heard, the 
cylinder should be opened and examined well for broken piston rings or lack 
of oil. Also see discussion for overheated cylinders. See if metal guards and 
shield are not rubbing on some moving part. 

Knocking and Pounding — Regular. — Knocking and pounding will be 
caused by ignition too far advanced, pre-ignition, overheated cylinders, loose 
bearings, loose piston rod bearing, loose fly-wheel, loose counterweights, end play 
in crank shaft, broken valve stem, broken circulating pump, and wear on cam 
shaft and cams. 

To remedy this, retard the spark. If this does not remedy the cause an 
examination of the cylinder should follow, then the bearings. Inspect thor- 
oughly the engine to see if there are any loose parts as indicated, to find any 
broken valve stems or broken pumps. Inspect also for wear. Tighten all 
loose parts. Take broken or worn parts to machinist. 

Irregular Knock. — An irregular knock is different from a regular and has 
an entirely different cause. It is usually caused by loose electrical connec- 



FARM GAS ENGINES 33 

tions, loose piping, pre-ignition caused by same variable faults, or defective 
commutator or timer. 

Make a thorough inspection of electrical connections for loose piping. 
Look under discussion for pre-ignition for remedies to prevent this. Inspect 
commutator or timer for poor adjustment. 

Speed Variation. — Speed may vary due to misfiring, water in the fuel, 
irregular supply of gas, magneto slipping, defective fuel pump, defective gov- 
ernor, wear on valve gear, defective times, loose electrical connections, and 
a poor mixture. 

To remedy this read the paragraph on misfiring. Inspect engine for that 
cause. Empty the fuel tank and put in a fresh supply of clean fuel which is 
sure not to have water. Note the supply of gas, see if it is regular. See if the 
magneto belt is slipping. Inspect the fuel pump and governor, wear on valve 
gears, and make a thorough inspection of the timer. See if some electrical 
connection is not loose, which would part of the time be in contact and part 
of the time away. Enrich the mixture. 

The above discussion on gas engine troubles is quite complete and if 
properly followed will give a clue to most any trouble that has any chance 
whatever to happen. In cases where these do not cover, the engine should be 
taken to an engine works for treatment. 

Miscellaneous Upkeep of a Gas Engine. 

There are certain operations in the care of an engine which have been re- 
ferred to under "Gas Engine Troubles" but need a little further explanation. 
These will include the repair of worn parts, repair of cracked or broken parts, 
repair of warped parts, use of lubricating oil, general care of the engine, and 
starting and stopping the engine. 

Worn Parts. — The principal wearing parts of an engine are the piston 
rings, the valves and the bearings. If the piston rings are worn they may be 
replaced with new ones. Disconnect the connecting rods at the crank end and 
remove the piston by drawing out of the cylinder from below. Remove the 
old piston rings by springing them open with a screw-driver, put on the new 
ones and insert the piston, one ring at a time until all the rings are in. Some- 
times the piston becomes badly worn. In this case it must be replaced en- 
tirely. 

When valves are worn and leaking they can be repaired by grinding. If 
the valve does not show a bright bearing all the way around, it is in need of 
grinding. On the top of the valve will usually be found a slot which will re- 
ceive a screw-driver. To grind the valve proceed as follows : oil both seat of 
palate and seat of the valve. Sprinkle in some floured emery. Then with 
brace and screw-driver turn the valve backward and forward, occasionally 
lifting and supplying a new charge of oil and emery. When the valve becomes 
smooth and bright and turns without apparant grating friction, wipe it clean, 
examine it and proceed to grind more if necessary. When the grinding is 
done, wipe all the parts clean and replace the valve. If the spring is too 



34 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

strong to allow placing the valve by the hand, compress the spring in a vise 
and tie it down with wires. When the valve is then put in position, cut the 
wires, replace the locknut and the valve is ready. 

Cracked Parts. — Sometimes the parts of the casings or even the moving 
parts are cracked from various causes. The water jacket suffers this trouble 
after freezing. Cracking of the water-jacket usually occurs after freezing 
and does not interfere in any way with the inside bore of the cylinder. A 
farmer with the proper tools will be able to make a satisfactory repairing of 
such an accident if it is not too large. Put a piece of sheet iron plate over 
the crack extending about an inch on each side. Bore a hole through the 
sheet into the jacket and tap the holes to receive screws. Clean the crack 
out with chisel so as to make a V-shaped groove. Saturate with a cream made 
of white lead and with an asbestos strip to form a mat in the groove. Cover 
it with the sheet metal and screw down tightly. This must be dried for 
several days before using. This will make a good temporary patch and will 
last well under ordinary service. 

Parts that are badly broken can not be replaced economically except from 
the factory or by some means of electric welding or acetylene welding. 

When engine is overheated or bearings are overheated, the expansion 
which takes place is oftentimes so great and uneven that the parts are twisted 
out of shape or warped. The only way this can be corrected is by turning 
the machine over to a machinist. 

Always use the best lubricating oils. Buy oil of a responsible dealer and 
take his advice where to use it. 

Care of Engine. — There is only one way to make an engine give a life 
long service and that is to take care of it. One of the first requisites is to 
keep it clean. Not only should the outside be kept clean, but all bearings 
and rubbing parts, whether oiled or not, should be carefully inspected from 
time to time and kept perfectly clean, and nothing but pure clean oil used. 
All these parts should be thoroughly looked over by the owner every two 
weeks. Give the batteries and connections the very best of attention. When 
the engine is not in use, they should always be disconnected or they will run down 
and be of no service whatsoever. 

To Start an Engine. — To a new owner, a little advice in regard to the 
routine of starting an engine will not come amiss. First, see that the engine 
is clean and all nuts are tight. Second, examine the fuel supply. Third, see 
that every part is oiled and adjusted. Fourth, test the battery switch and 
then close it. Fifth, turn the engine over slowly and note if the valves and 
piston operate freely. Sixth, admit cooling water from the radiator. Seventh, 
clank the engine two or three sharp turns with the ignition closed and the 
engine will start. 

To Stop an Engine. — Shut off either the gas or the spark. The more 
economical is to shut off the gas. After stopping the engine, close all oil 
cups, needle valves, and the water cocks which drain the water from the 
cylinder and from the cooling tank. 



PART TWO. 
AUTOMOBILES. 

Perhaps there is not a more live subject today than the automobile. 
There is literature of all varieties on the market, some good, some bad, telling 
the layman how to buy, use and care for his machine. Some go so far as to 
tell them how to pay for it. 

The engine, which is the prime mover of the automobile, has been care- 
fully explained in the past few pages. Reference is made to those pages to 
save repetition. Only those things which are peculiar to automobiling and 
not to the ordinary gas engine will be given in this chapter. 

The Engine. — The first care of an engine is cleanliness. Most automo- 
bile engines are properly protected from the dust by their housing, but even 
under the best conditions dirt will work its way in and cause unequal wear. 
Every part of the engine should be overhauled from time to time to deter- 
mine the amount of wear and take up all loose parts due to wearing. In the 
chapter on troubles of a gas engine will be found the symptoms of the 
troubles arising from the worn parts of engines and the remedy is also sug- 
gested. What to do in case of worn cylinders, piston rings, hot pistons, and 
worn bearings, have already been told in that chapter. 

The Carburetor. — For this as in a stationary engine it is absolutely neces- 
sary that the carburetor be kept clean. Since it gets the air supply from the 
outside, it also gets a large amount of dirt and in wet weather gets the 
moisture. Oftentimes water will collect in it. All carburetors are fitted with 
drain cups and adjustments so that a thorough cleaning can be made quickly 
without interfering with the proper adjustments of the air and fuel valves. 

Water in the gasoline will not only make the engine run irregularly but in cold 
weather the carburetor will freeze and break. 

The carburetor is often flooded by the sticking of the float, or when a cork 
float is used it becomes too heavy, or by a punctured metal float, or by leaky needle 
valves. To free the sticky float, open the float chamber and adjust. 

When the cork float becomes too heavy, remove and dry thoroughly. 

If the metal float is punctured, remove it, let the gasoline out and solder 
up the hole. 

If the needle valve is leaking the needles should be removed and the needle 
and valve seat inspected. If the needle is bent or rusted or the valve seat pitted, 
they should be brought to shape first by the machinist or by grinding as described 
under "Grinding of Valves." 

Clutch. — The clutch is the mechanism for connecting the driving shaft 
with the driven shaft and is so constructed that this connection can be made or 
broken at the will of the operator. 

There are two kinds of clutches in general use; the multiple-disc and the 

35 



36 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

one-cone clutch. The multiple-disc clutch consists of a series of metal discs se- 
cured alternately to the crank shaft and to the driving shaft. When the clutch is 
closed a spring presses the discs together, making .a gradual contact. Some 
multiple-disc clutches are submerged in oil, while others use no oil but face 
alternating discs with leather. 

The cone clutch is made of two members. The first or female member is a 
cone shaped cavity cut into the fly wheel itself so as to afford a tight fit for the 
second or male member which is forced to a tight fit by means of a powerful 
spring. There are various designs of cone clutches, some using the inside cavity 
and some the outside of the fly-wheel. In every case the principle is the same. 

Where clutches have leather contacts they should be carefully maintained and 
kept clean. The leather should be treated with oil once every two or three months. 
The leather may dry out from a number of causes and leave the surface rough, 
causing the cone to wear badly. When a first-class leather dressing is used fre- 
quently the cone will remain smooth and will always give good service. The con- 
trolling spring of the clutch should be of constant strength and properly designed. 
If it is too strong the clutch will grip and if too loose or too weak the clutch will 
slip. 

Gears and Driving Mechanism. — There are two kinds of transmission 
mechanisms, sliding and planetary. Either of these requires very little care. In 
the sliding gear transmission system, see that the gears are always run in oil. 
Inspect occasionally for worn corners due to improper meshing or sliding of the 
gears. 

Driving Mechanism. — There are two methods of transmitting the power 
of the engine to the gear wheels, the chain and the bevel gear drive. Practically all 
touring cars and many trucks are using the bevel gear or worm gear drive, while 
a few of the trucks are still using the chain drive. 

The chain should be kept tight enough to hold it in two straight lines between 
the top and bottom of the socket when the car is idle, but not too tight to bind. 

When the chains become noisy due to a grinding or snapping noise, they should 
be cleaned. To clean a chain thoroughly, first remove it and immerse it in a pan 
of gasoline. Rinse well and wipe clean. Prepare a bath of melted tallow and 
graphite, one part graphite and seven parts tallow. Maintain a temperature of 
350° F. and bathe the chain for about twenty minutes, then hang it up to drain. 
When treated in this manner a chain will work like new. 

Bevel gears or worm gears are usually placed in dust tight covers and give 
very little or no trouble. 

Care of Magneto and Battery. — Keep all parts clean and see that con- 
nections are kept tight. Do not let batteries run down lower than six amperes. 
Dry cells may be improved for a short period by boring a hole in the wax and 
pouring in a little vinegar or water. Always use ammeters for testing dry cells. 

A storage battery consists of a positive set and a negative set of plates im- 
mersed in an electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid. The positive set is a lead plate 
loaded with peroxide of lead, the negative set is pure lead. The plates covered 
with electrolyte do not discharge the battery below 1.8 volts per cell when the cur- 
rent is flowing. Always charge in the right direction and be careful to charge 
complete but not overcharge. Do not allow the temperature of the electrolyte to 
rise above 100° F. when charging. Change every two months whether it needs it 
or not. 



AUTOMOBILES 37 

Lubrication. — It is hardly necessary to discuss lubrication since there 
are so many good oils on the market and every manufacturer is pleased to recom- 
mend such brands that he knows will be satisfactory with his car. Be careful about 
using unknown brands or one which contains a large percentage of acids. 

To test cylinder oil place the various samples you wish to test on a piece of 
plate glass which has been heated to a high degree. Incline the glass and the 
one which runs down the plane farthest is the best. Always use mineral oils of 
high fire test. The same oil can be used all over the car. For transmission gears 
and shaft bearings a heavy oil or petroleum jelly can be used. 

Follow strictly the suggestions for oiling the car as given by the manu- 
facturer. 

Radiators. — Radiators appear frail and in fact they are called upon to 
not only cool the water contained in them but to resist the impact of other cars. 
Radiators usually give trouble by leaking or filling up with scale. To remove the 
scale mix a half pound of lampblack with a half gallon of kerosene and pour 
through the radiator several times. When the scale becomes soft turn a hose into 
the radiator and allow the water to run until the scale has been washed out. 

When the radiator leaks, this may be stopped temporarily by throwing in a 
handful of bran or meal. 

Brakes. — The drum brake is probably the most universal. This brake 
does its work through friction and friction always wears, therefore the brake is 
always wearing out. The wearing parts are made removable and adjustable. They 
should be watched carefully and new parts put in as often as necessary. Never al- 
low the brake band to become so loose that when the foot paddle is pushed the full 
length it will not positively stop the wheels. 

Allow no oil or grease to remain on the brake as this eliminates friction and 
prevents them from doing their duty. In driving use the foot brakes. Keep the 
emergency brake for emergency purposes. 

The Steering Gear. — The steering gear very seldom requires any atten- 
tion but when there seems to be any trouble it should be thoroughly investigated. 
Some of the most careless accidents have been due to loose steering gears. 

Keeping the Automobile Clean. — Provide the bath house with two large 
sponges, two chamois skins and a hose. Use one set of sponge and chamois skin 
on the wheels and the other part on the body. The purpose is to keep the grease 
which will necessarily collect on the wheels from getting on the body. The grease 
takes the luster from the car and makes it look old in a short time. Wash the car 
often. Do not allow mud to remain on the car over night to harden~as it will 
spot up the finish and can be remedied only by a trip to the paint shop. 

To remove mud, first soak it off and then cover the surface with castile 
soap with a sponge. Rinse off the water and finish with a chamois skin. 

Celluloid Fronts. — Celluloid fronts soon become scratched and cloudy 
and often dent or crack. To restore them to their original color and appearance, 
paint with a thin coat of transparent celluloid in acetone. Use a thin solution. 
Apply two or more coats if necessary. 

Tires. — The tires contribute to the greatest expense of the car. There- 
fore they should receive the greatest consideration in the maintenance and upkeep. 
Everyone is acquainted with the construction of the tires, being made up of alter- 



38 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

nate layers of rubber and cloth. Like other parts, they should be repaired as soon 
as out of order. When cuts or wounds in the rubber covering are discovered they 
should be sealed up immediately. Tires are worn out mainly by incorrect driving 
and carelessness. Too high speed in turning sharp corners, stopping and starting 
quickly are very hard on tires and should not be tolerated in any way by the owner 
of the automobile. 

Again rubber weathers or losses its life in the elements of light, heat or cold. 
It is said that rubber will die in two or three years whether it is used or not. 
Therefore the tires should be used to their limit in that time in order to get the 
most good out of them. When tires are stored, they should be protected from the 
light and placed in a cool room, and if possible slightly blown up. 

When cars are stored, the weight of the car should be lifted off the tires. 

Oils, grease and rust have a very bad effect .on rubber and should be kept 
entirely away from it. 

Incorrect Inflation. — It is important that tires be inflated to the right 
pressure, not too soft or too hard. There are so many pressure testers on the mar- 
ket that it is hardly necessary to give any other methods for getting the pressure 
of a tire. However, they should be pumped up in order to hold the car on which 
they are placed, high oft" of the floor so that there is very little or no noticeable 
indenture. 

The following table will give the proper weight on driving wheels or rear 
wheels for the various sizes of tires : 

Size Weight per Wheel 

28 to 36 x 2Y 2 225 lbs. 

28 to 36 x 3 350 lbs. 

28 x 3K 400 lbs. 

30 x 3H 450 lbs. 

32 x 3y 2 550 lbs. 

34 x 3V 2 600 lbs. 

36 x 3H 600 lbs. 

30 x 4 550 lbs. 

32 x 4 650 lbs. 

34 x 4 700 lbs. 

36 x 4 750 lbs. 

32 x V/ 2 700 lbs. 

34 x 4^ 900 lbs. 

36 x 4M 1>000 lbs. 

When the outside casing has the tread worn off it may be taken to a reputable 
repair shop and retreaded with a considerable saving of money. 

Tires should be washed quite often and all dirt and grit picked out. Use 
gasoline or kerosene to wash the tires. 

The Automobile in Cold Weather. — The greatest winter problem is to 
keep the water in the cooling tank from freezing. Without fail this will ruin the 
radiator and cylinder. It is common practice for some to allow the engine to run, 
but this appears to be needless wear and waste of gasoline. 

There are many anti-freezing compounds on the market that are very satis- 
factory and should be used in every case. With the approach of winter, drain 
the cooling system, mix the anti-freezing solution and refill. Solutions of calcium 
chloride and glycerine or wood alcohol are very common and successful. Calcium 
chloride sometime attacks the solder in the radiator. This can be prevented by 
placing a handful of quicklime in the solution. 

Glycerine will congeal at a very low temperature, but by adding a small quan- 



AUTOMOBILES 



39 



tity of sodium carbonate (washing soda) about 2 percent, by weight, to the gly- 
cerine solution, the difficulty may be prevented. 

When the car is to be stored for the winter, all tanks, oil, water and gasoline, 
should be emptied and the axles set up on supports to relieve the tires. Keep the 
car in a room which will remain at a uniform temperature with the outside. Do not 
place it near an open window or near a heater. 

Lamps. — There are two kinds of lighting systems today: the acetylene 
and the electric. 

The acetylene system, the gas is generated in one case and is released from 
storage in another. In the case of the acetylene storage tank there is nothing to 




~5TO/f^G£ BATTERY 



F/gur-e 



do but open the valve and regulate it according to what is needed. When the 
tank is empty it may be taken to any garage and exchanged for a new tank. 

An acetylene generator consists of a carbide chamber, where the fuel is 
stored ; a water chamber, connected with it to supply the water ; a gas chamber in 
which the gas collects after being generated ; and the combustion chamber in which 
the air is making the gas by means of a special burner and in which the gas is 
consumed. 

When water is poured on carbide, chemical reaction takes place and releases 
acetylene. It is necessary for the proper working of the acetylene generator to 
have the water supply passageways always clear, also keep the passageway for 
the gas open. The lamp should often be taken apart and thoroughly cleaned. In 
rainy and muddy weather, the generator should be well protected. Always carry 
a reserve supply of carbide in an air tight package. 



■±0 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

AUTO HINTS. 

Repair of Punctures on the. Road. — A method of repairing punctures on 
the road, which is superior to the vulcanizing method and does not use cement or 
patches is here given : — Remove the tire and locate the puncture, size and position. 
Take a small quantity of Michelin mastic of which always carry a good supply, and 
roll it in the palm of the hand. With a match or other small stick punch some of 
the mastic through the hole, being careful not to rupture the tire any further. 
When the mastic has been forced through on both sides then with fingers mold 
a rivet head on both inside and outside. This repair will be found immediately 
effective and permanent. 

To Remove Carbon from Cylinders. — Carbon from cylinders may be 
removed by a number of methods, oxidizing being one of the easiest and most 
convenient. 

Purchase a pint of peroxide of hydrogen. For a four-cylinder motor, pour 
about half of this in the intake manifold while the engine is running. The excess 
oxygen in the peroxide will combine with the carbon in the cylinders and 
effectively clean it. 

Do not add hydrogen peroxide until the engine has been run for some 
time and is warm. A cleaning once or twice a month will be sufficient to keep the 
engine in good running order. 

An Emergency Anti-Skid Device. — Carry with you 20 or 30 feet of one- 
inch new rope. If the car begins to skid, wrap the rope around the tires and rim of 
the rear wheel, much the same way that anti-skid chains are placed. It is bound to 
be an effective means of supplying a quick and cheap anti-skid device. 

An Effective Self-Starter. — Attach a small chain or rod to the air intake 
valve of the carburetor. Pass this through the dashboard so as to be in reach of 
the driver. When ready to stop, close up the air intake so that a rich mixture of 
gasoline may be drawn into the cylinders. This will leave the charge of gas which 
will in most cases start the engine on the spark. Try it and see how it works. 

How to Increase Tire Mileage. — If the tire is worn badly, remove the 
casing and place in it an inside tire protector. Get the kind that is cemented in. 
This will be found to increase tire mileage from two to three thousand miles. 

How to Make Regular Casing Puncture Proof. — Purchase long strips of 
chrome leather about the width of the tread, and put them on the inside the same 
way as for an inside tire protector. Cement over this a tire reliner. This will 
be found to increase the strength of the tire considerably and will oftentimes add 
ten to twelve thousand miles to the life of a tire. 

A Simple Rectifier for Charging Storage Batteries from an Alternating 
Current. — Operate as shown in sketch. Attach a lamp socket to the circuit 
as shown. Turn on the current and the apparatus will do the work. 



CONCRETE. 



Materials. 

Concrete is a mixture of Portland Cement, water, sand and pebbles or broken 
stone in proper proportions, to produce an artificial stone. The materials are 
mixed to a plastic mass and moulded to any shape desired. When left undis- 
turbed, it will become as hard as stone. 

The use of concrete is now so universal that everyone has some knowledge 
of its preparation. As simple as it is the most economical concrete must be pre- 
pared with great care. However, by following closely the instructions given in 
this discussion, the habit of correct manufacture will be soon learned and it will 
be easier for the layman to do concrete work than to lay brick, stone, or build 
timber structures. 

Advantages. 

Concrete compared with timber construction is more durable, strong, fire- 
proof, sanitary, artistic, and cheap. 

For example, suppose a timber structure costs $2,000. Its life is estimated 
at one-third of a century. To replace it at the end of a period of usefulness 
would take one thirty-third of two thousand, or $60.60 per annum. To pre- 
serve it with a proper coat of paint would cost $100 every five years. The total 
cost and investment at the beginning of the 31th year will be $2,000, plus 33 times 
$60.60, plus six times $100, which equals $1,600. 

A concrete house of the same size would cost $2,500. It will last a century 
or more and requires no paint. To reproduce it at the end of its useful period 
will cost one one-hundredth of $2,500 or $25 per annum. At the beginning 'of 
the 34th year the house will cost thirty-three times twenty-five plus $2,500, or 
$3,325 — a difference of $1,295 shown in favor of the concrete house. 

As the timber supply is decreasing, the value will increase so that the cost 
will equal that of concrete. Materials of which concrete is made are inexhaust- 
ible, and the price cannot raise from that cause. Therefore, for future building, 
the most economical planning will always use concrete. 

Some Mistakes About Concrete. 

The layman usually blames the failure of his attempt to make concrete to 
the cement. This is unfair and far from the usual cause. The Portland Cement 
manufacturer of today turns out a uniform product which has been thoroughly 
tested, and unless it has been damaged in transit or storage, the customer may 
depend upon it. 

41 



42 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Any one of the materials entering into concrete may be the cause of its fail- 
ure. One of the purposes of this work is to point out these mistakes and how 
to correct them, as well as to outline the correct methods of manufacture that 
will avoid them. 

Portland Cement. 

Portland Cement is an intimate mixture of clay and limestone which has 
been ground to a fine powder, burned almost to melting point, and then reground 




Interesting Example of .the Combined, t'sc of Concrete and Hubble Work. 



to very fine powder. The proportion of clay and limestone is very carefully 
guarded by expert chemists which guarantees the remarkable uniformity so well 
established with Portland Cement. 



How Portland Cement is Packed. 

Portland Cement is packed in standard packages (cloth sacks and paper 
bags) weighing 94 pounds net, which are considered as one cubic foot of packed 
cement when proportioning mixtures by the volume. A barrel contains four 
of such sacks or bags. Cloth sacks are billed separately to the cement purchaser 
at 10c each or 40c per barrel. They may be returned in good condition to the 
dealer who will refund the 10c. It is important however, that the sacks be in 
good condition. One which has been wet or torn so that it can not be filled again 
will not be redeemed. It is a fact that the use of paper bags is decreasing. This 
should not be the case, because the paper bags cost only 2y 2 c each and may be 
discarded. This will save the trouble of keeping track of the sacks. Some 
cement companies are furnishing cement in the bulk but this practice is not good 
except for large work. 



CONCRETE 43 

Storing Portland Cement. 

It is absolutely necessary to keep Portland Cement dry until it is used. It 
should never be piled directly on the ground or any place where it will be subject 
to the effects of moisture. It is best to store it in a tight shed having a raised 
floor so that dampness cannot get to it. There should be air space all around 
the cement, to ventilate it and help to keep it dry. If much is used the farmer 
should build a cement storage shed or warehouse for cement. Cement which 
has hardened as a result of absorbing moisture must not be used in concrete mix- 
ture. If the lumps may be crushed with the fingers the cement has not been 
damaged. Before receiving cement from a local dealer or from the railway com- 
pany always inspect it for lumpiness. If the lumps are so hard as to require 
mechanical means for breaking them, the cement should be rejected. 

Aggregates Are Composed of Sand, Gravel, or Broken Stone. 

The sand is the fine aggregate and the gravel or pebbles or broken stone, 
is the coarse aggregate. All particles of sand or pebbles which are below % inch 
in diameter are classed as sand, and all above that up to 3 inches in diameter are 
classed as gravel or broken stone. 

No matter what kind of aggregate is being used it should be properly graded. 
The particles should be hard and tough which makes them durable. A round 
pebble taken from the seashore or a river bed usually has good durable quality, 
because it has resisted the wear of the elements for a long time. 

Natural Deposits of Aggregate. 

Bank run sand and gravel is a natural mixture of sand pebble (usually con- 
taining more or less foreign material also) that we find in the ordinary sand or 
gravel bank. This mixture is hardly ever suitable for concrete mixture. Many 
failures are directly caused by using this kind of material. See Plate I, Page 47. 

Sand is the predominating material in these deposits. There is usually twice 
as much sand as gravel or pebbles. The ratio should be just the other way. In 
order to correct this proportion the whole aggregate should be screened through 
a % inch sieve. All that goes through is sand and that which remains on top is 
gravel. With this division, a correct proportioning can be made. 

The voids or air spaces in a given volume of pebbles which are uniform in 
size are about 45% of the mass. The same is true of a sand which has particles 
of a uniform size. Where the size of particles will vary considerably, the per- 
cent of voids will be reduced, sometimes as low as 25%. For the average grad- 
ing of pebbles or broken stone it will be sufficientlv accurate to figure on 45%. 
This is nearly half the volume of the mass. The theory is to fill these voids 
with sand. Then there will be some air spaces left. These are to be filled with 
cement. When all are properly mixed together it will make a dense mixture sim- 
ilar to a natural stone. From this theory the so-called arbitrary mixtures are 



44 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

derived. For instance 1 :2 :4 mixture means one cubic foot of cement, (packed 
cement) two cubic feet of loose sand and four cubic feet of loose pebbles, gravel 
or broken stone. In measuring the cement, a sack is used as a cubic foot of 
packed cement. The sand and gravel are mixed in boxes or wheelbarrows, 
which have been filled with the loose mixture. When mixed in this way the 
Portland Cement will coat every particle of cement and gravel sufficient to cause 
them to adhere together and form a dense mixture. If the bank sand were used 
where a large quantity of small particles existed, the surface to be covered would 
be considerably greater and the cement would not be able to cover them properly 
and a weak concrete would be the result. 

Water Tight Concrete. 

To make concrete water-tight means to make it so that the water cannot pass 
through the mass. This may be accomplished in several ways. The simplest 
is to properly grade the mixture so that the concrete will be as near like natural 
stone as possible. By properly grading, the particles can be made to fit in with 
each other so well, that there will be no room through which the water can pass. 
When this grading is not easily accomplished, artificial means of water proof- 
ing must be used. There are several preparations on the market suitable for 
this purpose. Some are mixed in the concrete and some are placed on the out- 
side. When secured from a reputable manufacturer they can be depended upon 
to do what they specify. On small work one should not try out any new com- 
pounds. The older ones which have been tried and found good should be the ones 
adopted. 

Broken Stone. 

In many localities where there are no gravel deposits, it is necessary to find 
some source from which broken stone can be obtained. Broken stone may be 
made either from a quarry product or by cracking "niggerheads" or "ruble- 
stones," which are found in the fields. These stones are in the way of the farmer 
in cultivating his fields, so he piles them along the side and often makes fences of 
them. They could not be put to a better use than to crush them and make con- 
crete. Low price stone crushers which may be operated by a three or four 
horse power gasoline engine can now be obtained. Any man can furnish his own 
crushed stone at about 50c per cubic yard. To buy broken stone, which is shipped 
in by a railway costs from two to three times as much as it can be produced by 
the individual, where he has plenty of these "niggerheads." 

Where a good quality of durable rock crops out from the surface of the 
ground it is easy to start a small quarry. By the proper use of dynamite the stone 
can be loosened and crushed at a very low cost. Usually about one dollar per 
cubic yard. 

The screenings from the stone crushers may be used in place of sand, es- 
pecially where sand must be shipped in. Oftentimes there are other materials 
such as mine tailings or slag that might be used for sand. 



CONCRETE 45 

Screening the Aggregate. 

As stated before, most bank run material must be screened and properly 
proportioned to get the strongest and most economical concrete. It should 
be screened through a quarter-inch screen, that is, one containing four meshes 
to the inch (sixteen meshes to the sq. in.). See Plate 2, Page 47. That which 
goes through the sieve will be called sand. That which remains on top is gravel. 
When these are mixed according to the proper proportions for the kind of work 
on which it is used an economical and strong concrete will result. If the gravel 
is very coarse another screening will be required to screen out the largest particles, 
especially where small work is being done. No pebble, or particles of broken 
stone or gravel should be used in concrete mixture whose greatest diameter is 
more than half the thickness of the concrete structure in which it is being used. 

In large heavy concrete work, large boulders or gravels may be thrown in, 
if care be taken to have them perfectly clean and to have the mortar very care- 
fully puddled about them after they are placed. 

Dirt in Aggregate. 

Dirt, that class of fine, foreign material which usually contains some rotten 
leaves or other organic matter, should in no case be allowed in concrete material. 

Clay is commonly classed as dirt, but this classification is erroneous. Under 
certain conditions, clay is a decided benefit. But when it coats the particles, thus 
preventing the cement from touching them, it is decidedly injurious. It is also 
injurious when added to an aggregate which already has an abundance of fine 
or medium sized material. A concrete which is made of a coarse sand and gravel 
and which would otherwise be porous, will be distinctly benefited by the addition 
of clay, up to 10 or 20%. In laboratory tests benefits have been recorded up to 
as high as 50%. It is not advisable, however, for more than 10 or 15% to be 
allowed, unless the user is thoroughly acquainted with the conditions necessary 
for its success. Dirt, clay, loam, or other materials may be removed from an' 
aggregate by thorough washing. 

Washing Aggregate. 

There are many washing and screening devices on the market. The one here 
illustrated is easily and simply constructed, an improvement for the man who 
is doing his own concrete work on a small scale. It can be built and operated by 
anyone. The materials to be washed are shoveled into a trough at the high end, 
while the water is applied through a hose connected to the pipe shown, which 
causes the materials to be tumbled and rolled about until they reach the lower 
end of the trough where the screen separates the sand from the pebbles, and water 
carries off the foreign material. Wedge shaped cleats are nailed on the bot- 
tom of the cloth inside to assist tumbling the materials as they roll down. More 
elaborate schemes than this are used by large contractors who supply these mate- 
rials in large quantities. But this is sufficient for the work done on a small scale. 



46 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Remember that washing aggregate is a very important feature and should not be 
considered lightly. 



, B0f//o boarsr 



■fi^Pebe/es 




Fig. 1 



A simple washing trough with screen at the lower end, by means of which dirty bank-run material can 
easily be washed free from clay or other foreign material and the saud separated from the pebbles. The 
platform on which the sand and pebbles are discharged should be sloped slightly to cause the wash water 

to flow away freelv. 



Mixing Concrete. 

For small work hand mixing is the most economical of mixing methods. If 
considerable work is to be done in concreting it is better to have a mixer which will 
be described later. The equipment for hand-mixing consists of a platform made 
of 2" by 6" timbers tongued and grooved so that tight joints will be formed to pre- 
sent loss of cement carried away when adding the mixing water with the materials. 
Make a floor of these planks by nailing them to 2" by 4" set on edge. Also nail 
2" by 4"s flatwise around free sides making a railing as shown in Plate 4. The 
2" by 4" joists may be cut slanting on one end and a clevis and chain be at- 
tached, so that a horse can be hitched to it and the platform moved anywhere about 
the place. Plates 4 to 14 show pictorially the process of mixing concrete. 

Next a mixing box as shown in Plate 4, Page 48, should be made. Use 1" by 
1 2" boards and make it large enough to hold 4 cu. ft. and mark on the inside the 
height to which one, two and three cu. ft. of material would rise. As noted, the 
measuring box has no bottom. It is set upon the platform and the materials 
dumped into it. When the measurement is over, it should be raised up and set 
back. A measuring box of some kind should be used, whether in hand mixing, or 
machine mixing. Manufacturers of wheelbarrows have them at different capa- 
cities so that mixtures can be measured in the barrow. It is customary to use 
wheelbarrow measurements in machine work. 



CONCRETE 



47 




view. The fine material (sand) and coarse matt-rial (pebbles) lie in j 
layers, mn&lls with the sand greatly in excess of the. pebbles. ' _ 




Plate 2 — Bank -ran material should always 
! in a concrete mixture. 



be screened before «s*ng. 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



— — — — ' ■ 




■^j - 



.■■ ««r.i''. 









. 



Plate 3. Contrast of shades produced by using different colored 
aggregates. The concrete in the dark portion of this wall was made 
of red sandstone, while the light portion was made of colored trap 
rock. The finish of the surface was obtained by hand brush 
hammering. 




Plate 4. Mixing platform with bottomless box for measuring materials. 

This box should be marked on the inside to show capacities of 1, 2, and 3 

cubic feet. When level full, the box holds i cubic feet. 



CONCRETE 



49 



i./ 


















WBBB^p^yg, , r 




d , 7 V ^\ 










€ £jfc 


1 jHsL "**,'- v'SHtL?*^ 










w esmgm 


[Is \ * 










■ ~^*^mm 


^ ; " 








SSS* 


II I J il IIMWMWI) 








SO, 



(CM fck 



;C% 



Plate 6 — Spreading the .Ccustnt ; Over , t|vc SancT 



50 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 




,y«*- , -^ _,-— ~ ™ ~~ -^ 







"Plate J 



First Turning. Sand ami Cement.* 




Second Tumine, Snnd «nd Cement 



CONCRETE 



51 




52 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 







Plate 11— Placing the Water on . 'the Stone (or Gravel) : which is on 
Top of the Mixed Sand and Cement, 




Plate 12 — Mixing the Stone (or Gravel) with the Sand and Cement 



CONCRETE 



53 




\jFuU 13— A small self-contained mixer-engine outsit at 
| job of mixing concrete for a concrete walk. Sacfa as 
! profitable, labor-saving and efficient piece of equipment. 



rk on a 

tfit is a 




;ptefo.l4--»*tbe mixing platform can be placed near ' wl«re conerefc 
is io be deposited, the concrete may fee shoveled directly from " 
platform into ' the forms. 



54 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 




l Plate 15— On the concrete feeding fleer every -.grain of feed gets where: 
it beiones— inside the animals for whteh It i* intended. This floor { 
■would have been better If .a curb had been built around it so that* 
grain ceufd not be pushed off the fioor while the hogs are feeding j 
and to prevent them from rootins underneath. 




ki -i-'-li 1 ^ 



EMLM *i 




Plate 17 — Concrete foundation for small building such as might ho 
used for milfchouse. Such a foundation ia rat-proof, rot-proof and , 
expense-proof. 



CONCRETE 55 

Table of Recommended Mixtures. 

1:1:1 Mixture for 

The wearing course of two-course floors subject to heavy trucking, such as 
occurs in factories, warehouses, on loading platforms, etc. 
l:l:l l / 2 Mixture for 

The wearing course of two-course pavements, in which case the pebbles or 
crushed stone is graded from ]/\ to y 2 inch. 
1 :2 :3 Mixture for 

Reinforced concrete roof slabs. 

One-course concrete road, street, and alley pavements. 
One-course walks and barnyard pavements. 
One-course concrete floors. 
Fence posts. 

Sills and lintels without mortar surface. 
Watering troughs and tanks. 
Reinforced concrete columns. 
Mine timbers. 

Construction subjected to water pressure, such as reservoirs, swimming pools, 
storage tanks, cisterns, elevator, pits, vats, etc. 
1 :2 :4 Mixture for 

Reinforced concrete walls, floors, beams, columns and other concrete mem- 
bers designed in combination with steel reinforcing. 
Concrete for arch ring of arch bridges and culverts ; foundations for large 

engines causing heavy loading, some impact and vibration. 
Concrete work in general subject to vibration. 
-Reinforced concrete sewer pipe. 
1 '%y 2 :4 Mixture for 

Silo walls, grain bins, coal bins, elevators and similar structures. 
Building walls above foundation, when stucco finish will, not be applied. 
Walls of pits or basements, subject to considerable exposure to moisture, but 

practically no direct water -pressure. 
Manure pits, dipping vats, hog wallows. 
Backing of concrete block. 

Base of two-course road, street and alley pavements. 
1 :2y 2 :5 Mixture for 

Walls above ground which are to have stucco finish. 

Base of two-course sidewalks, feeding floors, barnyard pavements and two- 
course plain concrete floors. 
Abutments and wing walls of bridges and culverts, dams, small retaining walls. 
Basement walls and foundations for ordinary conditions where water-tightness 

is not essential. 
Foundations for small engines. 
1 :3 :6 Mixture for 

Mass concrete such as large gravity retaining walls, heavy foundations and 
footings. 
1:1^ Mixture for 

Inside plastering of water tanks, silos, and bin walls, where required and for 
facing walls below ground when necessary to afford additional protection 
against the entrance of moisture. 
Back plastering of gravity retaining walls. 



56 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



1 :2 Mixture for 

Scratch coat of exterior plaster (cement and stucco). 

Facing block and similar concrete products. 

Wearing course of two-course walks, floors subjected only to light loads, barn- 
yard pavements, etc. 
1 :2y 2 Mixture for 

Intermediate and finish stucco coats. 

Fence posts when coarse aggregate is not used. 
1 :3 Mixture for 

Concrete block when coarse aggregate is not used. 

Concrete brick. 

Concrete drain tile and pipe when coarse aggregate is not used. 

Ornamental concrete products. 

Amount of Water to Use. 

The water used in making Concrete should be clean and pure, preferably a 
drinking water is better. It should not contain any alkaline or organic matter of 

any kind. Although it is commonly believed 
the amount of water to be used is not essen- 
tial, late tests have proved that the least 
amount of water that will lubricate the mass 
and allow it to be placed properly is the best. 
That amount which makes a quaky mix is 
easily handled and placed. A sloppy wet 
mix will destroy two-thirds of the possible 
strength. 

The diagram shown here indicates the 
relation of the amount of water used to the 
maximum strength of the concrete : 

The table below shows the proper 

amount of water to use. This table is very 

accurate and reliable. It is the result of hundreds of tests made by D. A. Abrams, 

Professor in Charge, Structural Materials Research Laboratory, Lewis Institute, 

Chicago. 



ioo 






























r 

C X 

10 











iC 


















































*.* 




























1 










\ D 
































































f 




























































































TO t 


<0 . 


70 1 


10 1 


10 1 


so / 


XJ 1 


40 1 


50 / 


SO 1 


70 i 


w h 


w b 


TO 



Water Ustti- Percent of Qwntity Gmny /iofJmumStrmjth 



TABLE I 



Mix 


Approximate Mix as Usually 
Expressed 


Water Required 

(Gallons per Sack of 

Cement) 




Volume of Aggregate 
After Mixing 


Cement 


Aggregate 


Minimum 




Cement 


Fine 


Coarse 


Maximum 


1 

1 

1 
1 


5 

4 
3 


1 
1 
1 
1 


2 
2 


4 
3 
3 
2V 2 


6 
5 


6^ 

6 
5M 



CONCRETE 



57 



Mixing by Machine. — There are many small machines for mixing con- 
crete on the market. Some are operated by hand, and some by power. Most 
farmers have a gas engine on the farm or can get a mixer that is operated by its 
own engine. These can be obtained in sizes such as would not be a hardship on 
the pocketbook of any progressive farmer. Machine mixing is more convenient. 

cheaper, and much better. The batch 
mixers are, as a rule the best. The 
batch should be mixed for at least one 
minute, and more if there is plenty of 
time. 

Placing Concrete. — After the con- 
crete is mixed on the board or in the 
machine it should be immediately placed 
in the form. In no case should the con- 
crete stand in the mixer or on the board 
for more than one hour before placing. 
If let stand more than fifteen minutes it 
should be remixed before placing. In 
order that it may set properly after it 
is placed, there should be very little or 
no disturbance of the mass until after 
one hour. When the concrete is placed 
too long after mixing the time of com- 
plete hardening is delayed. The mixing 
board or machine should be placed as 
near as possible to the work. If the ma- 
terials have to be transported any great 
distance at all, they should be transported 
before the mixing is done. In case the 
concrete is to be placed in a trench care 
should be taken not to strike the sides of 
the trench thereby mixing dirt with the 
concrete. When placed in wooden or 
steel forms care should be taken in de- 
positing the mix so as not to bulge or 
any way displace the form. It should be placed in layers of from four to six 
inches and spaded as shown in Figure 2. Spading may be done with a trowel, a 
spade, a shovel, or a tapered stick. After the concrete is deposited, one of these 
tools is forced down into the concrete, next to the form, and worked forward 
and backward, and to right and left, in order to bring the mortar out next to the 
form, and work out any air pockets that may be there. This will insure a good 
mortar face next to the forms, and when the forms are removed it will give a true 
plane surface to a wall. This should be carefully and diligently performed, 
patience being well rewarded in the appearance of the structure. . The concreting 
should be so planned that the quantity of concrete will be placed during a working 
day or whatever time is to be devoted to concreting. It is important to have the 




58 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



work advanced to a stage where it can be left in a suitable condition for resuming 
concreting later. It is best to roughen the surface at night so that the mixed 
concrete in the morning will be insured a good bond. For horizontal surfaces 
short pieces of iron or steel, placed upright and imbedded half way in concrete 





hfa// w/'f/r for/n 



For/r? show/ntf 
stop board in p/ace 



Fig. 3 



If necessary or desirable to finish some section of concreting to the full height of the forms, a vertical joint 
may be provided for as shown in this illustration. 

are very useful. This practice assures a firm metallic bond between the old con- 
crete and that placed the following morning or at some later time. Figure 3 
shows how a vertical joint should be made. 



Coloring. 

Concrete may be colored for artistic or economic reasons. Sometimes the 
whiteness of the cement produces a glare, which is injurious to the eyes and must 
be toned down by coloring. The amount of coloring matter to be added depends 
entirely upon the shade. The material should be mixed with cement before the 
sand or gravel is added. 

As concrete is usually built where permanency is desired, a permanent color 
should also be used. Cheap colors should be avoided. Blacks are usually the fa- 
vorite, and pure carbon blacks are best. Ultramarine blue, if of good quality, 
will hold its color for a number of years and fades evenly when it finally loses 
color. However' the most permanent are blacks, brown and ochre. Green can 
not be depended upon, especially when exposed to sun and water. Below is a 
table to be used with Portland cement. 



CONCRETE 



59 



TABLE No. 2 — COLORS TO BE USED IN PORTLAND CEMENT. 



Colors Desired 



Commercial names of colors 
for use in Cement 



Approximate price 

per lb. 1001b. lots 

for high grade 

Colors. 
Normal Market 



Pounds of color 

for each bag of 

Cement 



Light 
Shade 



Medium 



Grays 

Blue-black 

Black 

Blue 

Brownish red to dull brick red 

Bright red to vermillion 

Red sandstone to purplish red 

Brown to reddish brown 

Buff, colonial tint and yellow . 



Germantown lamp black. 

Carbon black 

Black oxide of manganese 

Ultramarine blue 

Red oxide of iron 

Mineral turkey red 

Indian red 

Metallic brown (oxide) . . 
Yellow ochre 



.10 
.08 
.06 
.18 
.03 
.15 
.10 
.04 
.06 



1 
5 
5 

5 
5 
5 
5 



2 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 



See Page 48 Plate 3 for example of shading- with colors. 

Many grades arid varieties of yellow ochre will be found on the market. 
French ochre, if genuine, is the safest. In purchasing colors, like purchasing any- 
thing else permanent, one should buy only the standard grades from reliable manu- 
facturers and know whether the color was especially designed to be used in cement. 



Protecting the Finished Work. 

After the concrete is laid it must be handled with just as much care as it 
was in the placing. Sudden changes of weather have marked effect upon the 
hardening of concrete. Cold weather tends to make it slow setting. Hot and dry 
weather tends to make it set rapidly. Either procedure is a fault. Quick change 
'of temperature should be prevented by covering the concrete with a loose moist 
sand or other suitable material, which must be kept moistened for four or five days. 
This will keep the concrete supplied with moisture, the element which makes 
it set. Many believe that the drying out is a part of the hardening, but this is a fal- 
lacy and should not be followed. It is water that makes it set and during that 
period it should always be supplied with plenty of water. When the concrete can- 
not be covered with sand or earth, or some other particular covering, it could be 
kept wet by frequent sprinklings. This should be kept up for several days, or 
two weeks is better. Leaving the forms in place will materially assist in retaining 
the moisture. The forms should not be taken away until the concrete is sufficiently 
hardened to carry the load. 

Concreting in Cold Weather. 

Concreting in cold weather is not an easy task. It should be avoided by the 
farmer unless he can do the work indoors. Frozen concrete is treacherous. In 
the majority of cases it will harden sufficiently if given time enough after it is 
thawed out. Sometimes it takes six months. If concreting must be done in freez- 
ing weather, the water and aggregate should be heated and covered well to pro- 
tect it from the frost. The covering should remain on at least two weeks. 



60 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Test for Hardness. 

There is no definite test for hardness of concrete or rather the time of hard- 
ening. Experience is the best judge. Some cement will set quicker than others. 
Temperature, moisture and character of cement all have some effect. Usually two 
weeks is sufficient in good weather, but in cold weather three weeks or more is 
necessary. 

Reinforced Concrete. 

Concrete is like stone. It will take a large compressive load, that is, a weight 
resting on top of it, but will not take a heavy pull or tension. Steel will take a 
heavy tension, therefore it is imbedded in concrete where there is likely 

to be cracks due to tension. Where 
there are great changes of temperature, 
the concrete will expand and contract 
through considerable space. These 
changes of size will open cracks unless 
the various parts of the concrete are 
held together by steel or iron. In the 
making of tanks, beams, floors, and 
posts, steel is added to make the concrete 
tough and elastic. The most common 
form of reinforcement for beams, floors 
and tanks is chicken netting, barbed wire, 
or woven fencing wire, although the 
farmer can make use of his odds and 
ends of barbed wire, or any kind of steel 
or iron rods. Iron will not rust when 
imbedded in concrete. In making floors 
or tanks the steel should be placed as 
near to the surface as possible. When 
both sides of a wall are exposed, such 
as in a tank the steel may be put in 
the center. In a fence post the steel is 
placed near the surface at the four cor- 
ners. In beams and slabs the steel is 
placed near the bottom. Poor wire 
should not be used because it is likely to split in the concrete. 

In reinforced concrete work, the concrete should be of a high grade, usually 
1 : 2 : 4 is specified. The largest stone used in the concrete should be small enough 
to pass between any of the reinforcing and the side of the form. The concrete 
should be made wet enough so as to just allow pouring but not wet enough for 
a slush. 

The amount of steel in special work should be determined by a competent 
engineer. 

Cost of Concrete Work. 

In the beginning of this discussion it was shown that concrete for house 
building was cheaper than timber in the long run. There are numerous smaller 




Fig. 4 



4-Inch Mesh 



CONCRETE 61 

examples of where concrete is far ahead of timber for particular kinds of con- 
struction, for instance, the sidewalk, or barn floor. It can be easily shown that a 
concrete floor is cheaper in first cost than a timber floor made up of two-inch ma- 
terial. Then its life is indefinite while the board floor must be renewed every 
few years. 

For example : suppose we have a floor made up of two by twelve joists placed 
twelve inches on centers and covered' with two-by-twelve-inch planks. It will re- 
quire four hundred feet of lumber for a ten-foot square. Suppose we use our 
cheapest lumber, say at about $24 per thousand. This would make the 
material cost $9.60, leaving out the bracings, bridges, nails and waste, which un- 
doubtedly would bring it up to something near twelve dollars per square of one 
hundred square feet. Suppose we build a concrete floor in the same place. A 
six-inch sub-base would contain fifty cubic feet of concrete. A 1-3-7 (see Page 
55) concrete can be used. With cement at $2.00 per barrel, sand at 75c a yard, 
and stone at $1.50, the materials for the base will cost $8.68 per square of one hun- 
dred feet, as compared with $12.00 for timber. The labor on both jobs would cost 
about the same. The advantages of the concrete floor over the wooden floor are: 
Durability, Cheapness, Best of Drainage, and Sanitation, all of which properties 
are very vital to the floor. Another advantage which the farmer would enjoy by 
using a concrete floor in his barn is the saving of manure. A concrete floor can 
be made water-tight so as to save all of the liquid part of the manure and thus 
hold its strength, while a wooden floor in the first place would be hard to make 
water-tight and it would be impossible to keep it so. The saving of the loss be- 
tween the two has been calculated by reliable farmers to pay for the floor in five 
years, which would be a twenty percent investment on the money. 

Illustrations for Calculating Quantities and Cost for Simple Concrete 

Structures. 

Suppose it is proposed to build a sidewalk four feet wide and 100 feet long, 
with a four-inch concrete base and a half-inch wearing coat. Concrete base to 
be built of 1 : 2^2 : 5 mix and the wearing coat 1 : 2 mix. First determine 
the number of cubic yards of concrete of each kind that is needed. The number 
of cubic yards of base will be 4x4-12x100 divided by 27, which equals nearly 5 
cubic yards. Now note in the table No. 3 Page 62, under the title "Quantities of 
Cement" sand and pebbles or stone required for one cubic yard compacted water 
or concrete just opposite the proportions 1 : 2 l / 2 : 5. It will be found that for every 
yard of concrete, 5 sacks of cement, VZy 2 cubic feet of sand and 25 cubic feet of 
stone is necessary. Multiplying each of these by 5, will give 25 sacks of cement, 
62*^ cubic feet of sand and 125 cubic feet of stone, or the sand and stone may be 
expressed in cubic yards. The number of cubic yards of sand will be 5x.46 or 2.3 
cubic yards and the same way 5x.92 is 4.6 cubic yards of stone. Now in the same 
table note the quantities opposite the 1 :2. It is noted that for each yard of mortar, 
12.8 sacks are necessary and .95 cubic yards of sand per cubic yard of mortar. The 
amount of mortar necessary will be 4x1-24x100x1-27 equals .62 cubic yards of 



62 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



concrete. Now multiply .62x12.8 which equals 7.94 sacks of cement. In the 
same way multiply .62x.95 which equals .59 cubic yards of sand. Now add to- 
gether the two quantities of cement and sand and this will'be the total neces- 
sary to complete the work. In the same way quantities for any simple struc- 
ture, whose volume is known, can be easily determined. 

Calculating the Cost of Concrete. 

It is easy to calculate the cost of concrete if table 3 on Page 62 is followed 
carefully. From this table the materials can be accurately itemized, and the 
builder can note the market on these three quantities and find out their unit cost 
delivered to the site. In general it will cost about one dollar per cubic yard 
for mixing and placing the concrete, if the mixing boards can be placed close to 
the work. It will take a little experience for one to find out just how much a 
gang can do in a day. By skillful management everyone can be kept busy and 
the price kept down to a very low figure. If the work is done at a time when 
the farmer is not very busy and his time not very valuable, the concrete can 
be said to have been made and placed for about the cost of the material. One 
example of calculating from the following table will be shown. 

QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS REQUIRED FOR VARIOUS MIX- 
TURES OF MORTAR AND CONCRETE 

Table No. 3 



Mixture Materials for One 
Bag Batch 


Resulting Vol- 
ume in Cubic 
Feet 


Quantities of Cement, Sand, and 
Pebbles or Stone Required for One 
Cubic Yard of Compacted Mortar 
or Concrete 




Cement 

in 
Sacks 


Sand 
Cu. Ft. 


Pebbles 
or Stone 
Cu. Ft. 


Mortar 


Con- 
crete 


Cement 

in 
Sacks 


Sand 


Stone or Pebbles 




Cu. Ft. Cu. Yd. 


Cu. Ft. Cu. Yd. 


1 

] 

1 

1 
1:2 
1:2 

1:2H 
1:3 


2 

23^ 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 




1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.0 
2.0 
2.0 
2.5 
2.5 
3.0 


3.0 
4.0 
4.0 
5.0 
6.0 


1.75 

2.1 

2.5 

2.8 


3.9 
4.5 
4.8 
5.4 
6.4 


15.5 
12.8 
11.0 
9.6 
7.0 
6.0 
5.6 
5.0 
4.2 


23.2 .86 
25.6 .95 
27.5 1.02 
28.8 1.07 
14.0 .52 
12.0 .44 
14.0 .52 

12.5 .46 

12.6 .47 


21.0 .78 
24.0 .89 
22.4 .83 
25.0 .92 
25.2 .94 



(Based on tables in "Concrete, Plain, and Reinforced," 3rd Edition, by Taylor & Thompson). 

Forms for Concrete. 



Hints for Good Forms. — Design the forms as simple as possible and out 
of as few pieces of lumber. Avoid using nails by fastening together with wires 
and wedges so that they may be easily removed without damaging the material. 
Make forms too strong rather than not strong enough. Bulging forms make bad 
looking pieces of concrete. When they bulge too much, the forms will leak and 
let the water and cement out, weakening the concrete. Form lumber which 



CONCRETE 63 

has been twisted out of shape cannot be used again. Where a great amount of 
concreting is to be done, two-inch forms should always be used. For temporary 
work, the lightest and cheapest will be the most economical. 

In planning the forms, take into consideration the structure which is being 
built. If it is an exposed position the form should be very carefully aligned so 
that the finished structure will be straight in every respect. In work that is to be 
covered up, money and time can be saved by not being so careful with the work. 

Forms that are to be used several times should not be nailed, especially they 
should not be nailed into small, narrow or angular spaces where the removal 
will be difficult. Do not cut the lumber any oftener than necessary. Plan the 
structures which are being built to use commercial sizes. A good plan in nailing is 
to use long nails and drive them in only part way so that they may be easily 
pulled. 

Materials for Forms. — The average farmer will use some kind of timber 
for forms. Cheaper and softer grades of lumber are the most economical. It 
does not pay to use hard lumber except where it is to be used several times and 
can be clamped, wired or wedged in place. 

To Prevent Concrete from Sticking. — Concrete will stick to the forms 
unless some kind of oil or foreign matter is placed on them. Oil is the most con- 
venient and serves the purpose and at the same time protects the lumber from the 
moisture. 

Steel Forms. — Where a great number of units of one kind are to be made, 
it is often cheaper to purchase steel forms from manufacturers on the market. 
Such items as Concrete Blocks, Concrete Fence Posts and Concrete Tile, demand 
the use of steel forms. There are several grades and kinds on the market. The 
amount of expenditure to make for such forms depends on the number to be 
made. For his own use, the farmer should limit his machinery to the smaller and 
simpler types, as he will not be using them all the time and the investment can be 
kept as low as possible. 

The Construction of Concrete Floors, Walks, and Other Pavements. 

In taking up the construction of concrete it is necessary to first handle the 
simplest form of concrete work. The sidewalk is found to be the most simple 
structure which is common to all farm work. A sidewalk is nothing more than a 
special form and shape of concrete floor, so when one is learned, it is possible to 
make either. The first thing to do in making concrete sidewalks or floors is to 
carefully stake out the work. Then excavate, set the forms, and stake them 
down, as shown in Fig. 5. Necessary tools outside of a few shovels are also 
shown. If the ground is firm and fairly well drained where the walk or floor is 
to be laid, the excavation should be made only deep enough to accommodate the 
concrete of which the floor is made. Where the soil is very loose or poorly 
drained the excavation is deepened and a sub-base of sand, gravel or cinders 
is added. The thickness of this base depends upon -local conditions. Three 
or four inches is usually enough, although as high as eight inches has been 
used. For the average work no sub-base is necessary if the bottom of the trench 



64 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 




CONCRETE 



65 



is carefully cut to surface. For a sidewalk with a 4-inch base and a one-inch 
wearing coat, a trench 4 inches deep should be made. The bottom should be 
struck off level. Mix enough concrete to make two or three sections four feet 
long. Mix it and spread evenly in the bottom of the trench at about seven inches 
depth. With a tamper, tamp it down to an even surface 4 inches deep. Then 
mix the mortar to a medium wetness and spread first with a shovel, and strike off 
later with a straight edge. If not too wet it may be rubbed with the smoothing 
trowel immediately. Otherwise, let it stand and try it every fifteen or twenty 
minutes and as soon as it will take the trowel, finish it. The least amount of 
troweling that can be done to bring it to a true surface and make it smooth is 
the best. Below will be found a table which will be very useful in figuring out 
quantities for various floor surfaces. 

TABLE 4 

Bags of Cement to 100 Square Feet of Mortar Surface 



Thickness 


1 :1 


Proportions 
1 :.1H 


1 :2 


X A inch 


3V 2 Bags 


2% Bags 


2H Bags 


M inch 


5 Bags 


4 Bags 


3J4 Bags 


1 inch 


7 Bags 


5}4 Bag3 


4H Bags 


\\i inches 


8H Bags 


6 Bags 


5M Bags 


\Yt inches 


10 Bags 


8 Bags 


6M Bags 


\% inches 


12 Bags 


9J4 Bags 


7M Bags 


2 inches 


14 Bags 


1 1 Bags 


9 Bags 



Surfaces laid with one Barrel of Cement 
No. of Square Feet of Concrete (base) laid with 4 bags (1 bbl.) of Cement 







Proportions 




Thickness 


1 : VA :3 


1 :2 4 


1:3:6 


3 inches 


47 Square Feet 


60 Square Feet 


83 Square Feet 


4 inches 


36 Square Feet 


46 Square Feet 


66 Square Feet 


5 inches 


27 Square Feet 


36 Square Feet 


52 Square Feet 


6 inches 


24 Square Feet 


30 Square Feet 


41 Square Feet 


8 inches 


17 Square Feet 


22 Square Feet 


33 Square Feet 


10 inches 


14 Square Feet 


19 Square Feet 


26 Square Feet 


12 inches 


12 Square Feet 


15 Square Feet 


21 Square Feet 



No. of Square Feet of Mortar Surface Laid with 4 Bags (1 bbl.) of Cement 



Thickness 


Proportions 
1:1 \:W2 1:2 


Yt inch 
% inch 
1 inch 
1J4 inches 
ljl inches 
1% inches 
.2 inches 


114 Square Feet 
80 Square Feet 
57 Square Feet 
48 Square Feet 
40 Square Feet 
33 Square Feet 
29 Square Feet 


146 Square Feet 
100 Square Feet 
73 Square Feet 
60 Square Feet 
50 Square Feet 
43 Square Feet 
36 Square Feet 


178 Square Feet 
114 Square Feet 
89 Square Feet 
70 Square Feet 
59 Square Feet 
52 Square Feet 
44 Square Feet 



NOTE — Four bags of cement equal 1 barrel. 



Hints. 

Be careful to mix the concrete and mortar well. 

Remember to place the wearing coat on the base immediately after the base 
is placed. If this is not done, the two will not adhere and the walk will be ruined 
by scaling or freezing. To prevent upheaval and scaling follow instructions care- 
fully and drain the soil well under the walk. 

Where walks are laid by a big tree, the growth of the roots may raise them. 
To prevent this cut off the roots. 



66 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Settlement cracks may be prevented by thoroughly tamping the ground before 
laying the walk. 

Crumbling and scaling will not occur if good materials are used and the di- 
rections are followed carefully. Keep the surface moist for four or five days and 
no trouble from this source will occur. 

Floors or walks larger than twenty or thirty feet square should be provided 
with contraction joints. This can be done by cutting clear through the floor or 
walk and placing a ^-inch thick board on edge at the time the floor or walk is 
constructed. This can be left in or pulled out and the space rilled up with sand. 




Fig. 6 



^DETAl L- OF- Cb?2 Aj£Q- 



Form for Casting Concrete Slabs for Simple Sidewalks. 
For floors of milk-houses and spring-houses, or other small buildings with 
floors resting on the ground, and for walks; small slabs of concrete are very 
convenient. The slabs are cast at any convenient time and stored until 
needed. For walks where no great weight will come upon them, the slabs can 
be made 2 inches thick and about 2 by 3 feet in size. For floors the slabs should 
be made thicker. 

If the floor is to be made water-tight, it may be prevented from cracking through 
change of temperature by laying reinforcing steel or woven wire mesh a couple of 
inches below the surface. For large surfaces, fencing wire should be used, for 
small surfaces the ordinary chicken wire will suffice. 



MATERIALS FOR 100 SQUARE FEET OF CONCRETE. 

Table No. 5 — Bags of Cement to 100 Square feet of Concrete Surface. 



Thickness 



3 inches 

4 inches 

5 inches 

6 inches 
8 inches 

10 inches 
12 inches 



1:1H:3 



SV 2 Bags 
11 Bags 
U*A Bags 
16% Bags 
22% Bags 
28% Bags 
34% Bags 



1:2:4 


6 J^ Bags 


8% Bags 


11 Bags 


13% Bags 


18 Bags 


21 H Bags 


26 y 2 Bags 



1:3:6 


4% Bags 

6 Bags 

W2 Bags 

W% Bags 

12 Bags 

15H Bags 

lS 1 /^ Bags 



NOTE — The farmer will have little use for any mixture but the 1:3:6. 



CONCRETE 



67 




Fig. 7 — An Illustration of the Method Commonly Used To Lay Out 
Foundation Lines And To Square Building Corners 



£ by 6 inches 




Fig. 8— Simple Form of Foundations For Small Buildings, Such As Might 

Have Been Used in Constructing The Foundation Shown on Page 

42. No Forms Are Necessary Below Ground When The 

Earth Is Self Sustaining. 



68 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Concrete Foundations, Piers and Walls. 

Because of its ease of handling, durability and strength, concrete has re- 
placed other materials for foundation and pier construction. 

Solid Concrete and Concrete Blocks for Foundations. 

There are two kinds of concrete walls in common use. One is made of 
poured or solid concrete and the other built up of concrete blocks The concrete 
block is the cheapest but not so strong or water-tight. The solid concrete wall is 
better and should be used in preference to the concrete blocks under the ground. 
Above the ground where some decoration is necessary, concrete blocks will more 
often be the best. Foundations should always extend below the frost line except 
where the ground is perfectly drained. 




The width of walls for ordinary dwellings and farm buildings will vary from 
six to eighteen inches. Probably eight or twelve-inch walls will answer most pur- 
poses. The base is usually increased in width as shown in Figure 8. 

In building a foundation wall, it is first necessary to stake it out, as shown in 
Plate 16, Page 54, and Figure 7, Page 67. Then build the forms as in 
Figure 8, depending upon the kind of foundation, whether there will be a base- 
ment or not. If the wall cannot all be poured at one time, make a joint as shown 
in Figure 3, Page 58. The resulting wall will be such as in Figure 3 and Plate 17, 
Page 54. 

It is often necessary to replace an old foundation which has been made of 
timber or stone. This can be easily accomplished as shown in Figure (9). First 
block up the structure as shown in the left hand figure, then build the new foun- 
dation, using the same method as described above, leave the forms on for two or 
three weeks, remove the props and the foundation is complete. 



CONCRETE 



69 



Below is a table of quantities of materials, different heights of walls used in 
masonry. 

TABLE NO. 6— THICKNESS OF WALLS AND QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS 
FOR DIFFERENT HEIGHTS OF BASEMENTS. 

Proportions: 1 Part Portland Cement to 2>2 Parts of sand, 
to 5 parts of gravel or stone. 



Height of Basement 


Depth of Foundation 
Below Ground Level 


Thickness of Wall 
at Bottom 


Thickness of Wall 
at Top 


6 feet 

8 feet 

10 feet 


4 feet 
6 feet 
8 feet 


6 inches 
10 inches 
15 inches 


6 inches 

8 inches 

10 inches 



Cement per 10 ft. 
Length of Wall 


Sand per 10 ft. of 
Length of Wall 


Gravel or Stone per 10 ft. 
of Length of Wall 


Bags 
6 
12 

25 y 2 


Cubic Feet 

\\y 2 

29 

60 


Cubic Feet 

29 

58 

120 



Another concrete table is shown. 

TABLE NO. 7 — QUANTITIES OF PORTLAND CEMENT, SAND AND 
PEBBLES OR CRUSHED STONE FOR 100 SQUARE FEET OF CON- 
CRETE 10 INCHES THICK, EQUAL TO 3.08 CUBIC YARDS. 





Proportions 






Quantities 




Sacks 


Cubic Feet 


Cubic Feet 


Sacks 


Cubic Yard 


Cubic Yard 


of 


of 


Pebbles 


of 


of 


Pebbles 


Cement 


Sand 


or Stone 


Cement 


Sand 


or Stone 




1 




60.2 


2.23 






IK 




47.7 


2.65 






2 




39.4 


2.92 






2K ■ 




33.8 


3.13 






3 




29.5 


3.29 






1 


1 


41.7 


1.54 


1.54 




w* 


3 


23.4 


1.30 


2.60 




2 


3 


21.5 


1.59 


2.38 




2 


4 


18.5 


1.37 


2.74 . 




2K 


4 


17.2 


1.59 


2.54 




2M 


5 


15.4 


1.43 


2.86 




3 


5 


14.2 


1.58 


2.64 



NOTE — These quantities can be safely used for estimating, ordering materials and, after the 
work is done, as a check to prove that the required quantity of cement has been used. Actual 
quantity of materials used in the concrete should not vary more than ten per cent above or below 
the quantities given in the table. 



70 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Use of Table 7. 

This table can readily be used for any concrete structures which can be 
measured in area and which are of uniform thickness over any considerable area 
such as walls, floors and walks. 

The following examples illustrate the use of the table : 

EXAMPLE 1. — Required the quantity of materials for a 12-inch thick base- 
ment wall, 6 feet 5 inches high above footing, for a house 25 feet by 40 feet outside 
dimensions. The footing 1 foot 6 inches wide and 6 inches thick. Concrete pro- 
portioned 1 : 3 : 5. 

WALL: 

Length of wall 25+25+39+39=128 ft. 
Height of wall 6 ft. 5 in.=6 5/12=6.417 ft. 
Area of wall=128X6.417=821.4 sq. ft. 
Thickness of wall=12 in. 

Quantities of materials for wall concrete: 
Factor for multiplying units in 

821.4 12 

table = X ~ = 8.214 X 1-2 =9.8568 ; 

100 10 

Take 9.86 
Sacks of cement=14.2X9. 86=140.0 
Cu. yd. of sand =1.58X9.86=15.6 
Cu. yd. of pebbles or crushed stone=2. 64X9. 86=26.0 

FOOTING: 

Length of footing=25.5+25.5+37.5+37.5=126 ft 
Width of footing=l ft. 6 in.=l 6/12=1.5 ft. 
Area of footing=126X 1.5=189 ft. 
Thickness of footing=6 in. 

Quantities of materials for footing: 

Factor for multiplying units in the 
189 6 

table= X — = 1.89X.6=1. 134=1. 13 

100 10 
Sack of cement=14.2Xl-13=16.0 
Cu. yd. of sand=1.58X 1-13=1.8 
Cu. yd. of pebbles or stone=2.64X 1.13=3.0 

Total quantities of materials : 

Sacks of cement=140+16=156.0 

Cu. yd. of sand=15.6+1.8=17.4 or 17. 

Cu. yd. of pebbles=26.0+3=29.0 



CONCRETE 



71 



EXAMPLE 2. Required the quantities for a concrete floor for a basement. 
Interior dimensions of the basement 23 feet by 38 feet. Floor 5 inches thick 
over all, with 4-inch base of concrete proportioned 1 : 2y 2 : 5, and 1-inch wearing 
course composed of cement mortar proportioned 1 : 2. 
Area of floor=23X 38=874 sq. ft. 
Factor for multiplying quantities in table for 
874 4 

base = X — = 8.74 X -4 = 3.5 

100 10 

Quantities of materials for base concrete: 

Sacks of cement=15.4X3. 5=54.0 
Cu. yd. of sand=1.43X3.5=5.0 
Cu. yd. of pebbles or stone=2.86X3. 5=10.0 
. Factor for multiplying quantities in table for 

874 1 

wearing surface = X — = 8.74 X -1 = .9 

100 10 

Quantities of materials for wearing surface mortar : 

Sacks of cement=39.4X-9=35.5 

Cu. yd. of sand=2.92X-9=2.6 cu. yd. 

Total quantities of materials for floor : 

Sacks of cement=54.0-f-35.4=89.5 
Cu. yd. of sand=5.0-f-2.6=7.6 or 7.5 
Cu. yd. of pebbles or stone=10.0 

TABLE NO. 8— SURFACE AREA (IN SQUARE FEET) OF CONCRETE 

SLABS OR WALLS OF VARIOUS THICKNESS AND PROPORTIONS, 

THAT CAN BE MADE WITH ONE SACK OF CEMENT. 



Thickness of 




Concrete Mixture 






Slab or Wall 












in Inches 


1:2:3 


1:2:4 


1:2J4:4 


1:2^:5 


1:3:5 


3 


15.52 


17.88 


19.42 


21.77 


23.2 


3^ 


13.31 


15.33 


16.65 


18.67 


19.9 


4 


11.64 


13.. 41 


14.56 


16.33 


17.4 


^A 


10.36 


11.93 


±2.96 


14.53 


15.5 


5 


9.31 


10.73 


11.65 


13.06 


13.9 


5V2 


8.46 


9.74 


10.58 


11.86 


12.6 


6 


7.76 


8.94 


9.71 


10.88 


11.6 


6K 


7.18 


8.27 


8.98 


10.07 


10.7 


7 


6.65 


7.66 


8.33 


9.33 


9.9 


8 


5.82 


6.70 


7.28 


8.16 


8.7 


10 


4.66 


5.36 


5.83 


6.53 


6.9 


12 


3.88 


4.47 


4.85 


5.44 


5.8 


14 


3.32 


3.83 


4.16 


4.66 


4.7 


16 


2.91 


3.35 


3.64 


4.08 


4.3 



72 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Overflow Pipe 

"Front Wagon 
Wheel Tire 



Water Tanks or Troughs. 

After learning how to make feeding floors, sidewalks, cellar floors, etc., 
it is an easy matter to add to this some simple vertical walls for tanks or 
troughs. The concrete watering tank is becoming universally popular and 
universally used. When properly built, it is permanent and cheap. Great 
care should be exercised in making it and seeing that the concrete is the very 
best and is placed to the best advantage. In large tanks attention must be 
given to the drainage in order that when the ground freezes it will not heave 
and break the tank. (See Plate 18, Page 76). 

Construction of Trough and Tank. 

A simple circular tank can be made by cutting a barrel half in two and 

setting it inside of a box so that a 
space of six inches will be left around 
the barrel and about eight inches from 
the bottom of the barrel to the bottom 
of the box. Across the bottom may 
be laid several pieces of heavy wire, 
scrap iron, say about three or four 
inches apart both ways. A row of 
fencing wire may be cut to fit around 
in the space between the barrel and 
the box. Then pour the concrete. 
Use a 1-2-3 Concrete, pour very care- 
fully, and spade it well. Keep it wet 

for two weeks, and remove the forms, and an excellent tank will result. (See 

Figure 10.) 

Slop and Hog Troughs. 
The hog is generally considered to be the scavenger animal on the farm. 

It is supposed to eat the leavings of food from every other living thing on the 

place. Consequently it is thought that it can 

eat out of most any kind of a receptacle. As a 

matter of fact, the hog is just as careful about 

his eating as any other animal. In order to 

produce good meat, it should be taken care 

of just the same as any other food producing 

stock. 

Concrete makes clean, sanitary, durable 

hog troughs. In Figure 11 are shown the 

forms of reinforcing and a section through a 

finished trough. The form is a bottomless box 

placed on a level floor or a piece of ground 

which is level and clean. On the inside is 

placed an oblong box having outside dimensions equal to those of the trough. 

Three half-inch round rods and some chicken wire placed as shown and then add 

1:2:4 concrete, will make the trough complete. 




Fie- 10 — Design of Forma for Cii 




Fig. 11— Hog 



i -H c ,hP<*>lrrf N *"""J- 
Chicken TroughB 



CONCRETE 



73 



Rectangular Concrete Hog Wallow. 

Among the structures which may properly be classed as a kind of tank 
is the concrete hog wallow. The value of a hog wallow from the standpoint 
of promoting better sanitation and hence raising the standard of health 
among hogs, has been proven many times. (See also Plate 18). 



7 ft 



Ground level ~7 



v, 



-§- 



: nch bars 



t^Lop 



- Tar filled Join t 



6 in 



fy^tif Well compacted earth $' yfejfc 

SECTION CROSSWISE 



rI i 




General, view. 



a bin . 

Concrete pavement, -*H/ '| ■ 



// feet 




-■£=~Water lerel / 

Corrugations g -in. bars ~~g 



Section lengthwise. 




74 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 







CONCRETE 75 

Milk and Cream Vats. 

Modern dairying demands complete sanitation in the care of the cows 
and the milk. There is no better material than concrete to insure this condi- 
tion. Milk should be kept at even temperatures which are most easily possible 
in heavy masonry tanks. 

An excellent milk and cream vat can be made by setting a concrete tank in 
the ground. First dig a pit to a depth of V/ 2 feet and place the regular wooden 
forms for a tank, making the walls six inches thick and the base eight inches. 
Make the inside dimensions 1 foot 10 inches in height, using a 1:2:4 mixture 
on the walls and floor at the same time, placing inlet and outlet pipes before 
the concrete is poured and seeing that mortar is packed closely around each 
one. (Fig. 13 shows design of milk and cream vat that is successful). 




Small round rods spaced G in. 
horizontally and vertically 






9 1 }•' ^I/Metal fobr/c i— J 



j|£« 



>Ve// compacted ear//? 

Section 



v /?/■'.-/'/£>; 



Fig. 14 — Another Design For Reinforced Concrete Manure Pit Show- 
ing a Cistern Provided for caring for Liquid Fertilizer 



Manure Pits. 



The farmer does not need advice on the value of manure, nor does he 
need to be told how wasteful it is to pile it on the ground. Records show 
that manure will in a short time lose half of its value. Many save this loss 



76 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 




CONCRETE 



77 




Plate 21 




Plat* 22 



78 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 





Plate 24 




Plate 25 



CONCRETE 



79 



by hauling out the manure as fast as it is produced, but this is not always 
possible. 

The only remedy is to properly store in a concrete manure pit. By placing 
in a concrete manure pit, it can be kept damp so that it will not fire. The 
liquid is retained and all the strength is saved for the crops when it is hauled 
out. The details of making floor and walls and tanks have been too well 




Fig. 15. 



given to go into detail of construction on manure pits. One design will be added 
as a suggestion. (See Figure 14.) The method of procedure is the same as in 
all other structures of this kind. 



Concrete in the Cow Barn. 

With cleanly milk and butter producers, it is no longer a matter of floor or 
no floor; it is merely a question of which is the best floor for the cow barn. 
The best dairymen long ago decided in favor of concrete. On account of 
many epidemics of "catching" diseases, directly traceable to milk, city authori- 
ties are forcing the careless dairyman to decide — concrete floors are one of the 
requirements for certified milk. (See Plate 22, Page 77). 

The stalls of dairy barns are arranged with the cows in the opposite 
rows of stalls standing with their heads or their heels towards each other. 

The stall plan depends entirely upon the arrangements for bringing in 
feed and removing manure. The plan below is for a barn with the cows' heads 
toward each other. If the dairymen prefer the other arrangement, the same 
plan can easily be adapted to it. A width of 8 feet 6 inches provides sufficient 
room for a manure spreader. 

How to Build Dairy Barn Floors. 

Consider a barn planned to have the two rows of cows facing each other. 

Remove all manure and other foreign matter together with such humps 
of earth as may be necessary to give the floor a slight slope in the direction 
in which the manure will be taken out. Begin the construction of the floors 



80 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

at the two sides of the barn so that the middle and ends may be used as 
working space. 

On the earthen floor, at a distance of 4^ feet from the side walls of the 
barn, set on edge a line of 2 by 6-inch boards, extending the entire length of the 
building. Support these boards by stakes driven firmly in the ground on the 
side of the board away from the barn wall. By means of a carpenter's spirit 
level and a grade line, see that the tops of these boards have an even slope (say. 
}i -inch per foot) toward the manure pit. Allowing a clear intervening 
space of 10 inches, set up in a similar way a line of 2 by 8-inch boards with 
the supporting stakes inside of the 10-inch space and with the top of this board 2 
inches higher than the 6-inch board. In this space the drop gutter will later 
be constructed. 

The Alleyway. 

Between the wall and the 6-inch board tamp in sufficient gravel to even 
off all irregularities in the ground surface and to allow the building of a 
5-inch thickness of floor, sloping y 2 inch from the wall toward the gutter. Mix 
the concrete 1 : 2y 2 : 5, tamp into place, and finish the surface with a wooden 
float and a wire brush. The roughened surface thus produced gives the cows 
a good footing. 

The Stall Floor. 

With the alley finished, begin the construction of the floor of the stalls 
proper. For the average sized cow, the usual length of stall is 4 feet 8 
inches from stanchion to drop gutter and the width is 3 feet 6 inches. The 
stall floor should slope not less than z / 2 inch toward the drop gutter to provide 
for drainage. If an adjustable stanchion fastener is to be used, set it in the 
center of the 6-inch manger wall. The length of the stall is regulated by this 
device. For a stall 4 feet 8 inches long, set the outside board (2 by 12 inches) 
of the manger wall 5 feet 2 inches from the drop gutter. The top of this board 
will be 7 inches above the finished floor. This extra height provides a form 
for the manger wall. In this space, place the 5-inch floor in the same manner 
as the alleyway was laid. If gas-pipe stall divisions are to be used later, 
make mortises in the floor at the proper points by tamping the concrete around 
a core of the right size, removing the core when the concrete has stiffened. 
(See Fig. 15, Page 79). 

The Manger. 

As soon as the floor of three stalls has been concreted and while the con- 
crete is yet green, build the concrete manger wall upon the new stall floor. 
The projecting 7 inches of the 2 by 12-inch board already in place serves as 
the outer wall form. "Toe nail" two 1 by 6-inch boards together at their edges, 
thus providing a 7-inch height for the other manger wall form and a bearing 
plate to rest on the green stall floor. Set this wall form so as to leave a 
6-inch space for the manger wall. Cross-brace these wall forms upon each 
other and if necessary drive an occasional nail through the bearing plate 
into the new concrete. Fill the space between the forms with concrete, setting 



CONCRETE 81 

the stanchion fasteners at the same time. Continue in the same manner 
until the stall floors are finished. If desired, the back wall of the manger may 
be given a dish shape for a swinging stanchion. (See Plate 20, Page 76). 

Then commence the work on the other side of the barn, constructing the 
floor of the alleyway and stall in exactly the same manner. (See Plate 21, 
Page 77). 

The Feedway. 

With the alleys and stalls finished, begin work on the feedway. If pos- 
sible, this should be at least 8 feet wide. 

As the bottom of the manger should be on a level with the stall floor and 
since the top of the feedway floor must be at least 8 inches above the bottom 
of the manger, place sufficient gravel fill (well tamped) to bring about this 
result. To hold in place the 5-inch concrete of the feedway alley floor and to 
provide for sloping front walls of the mangers, set a 2 by 10-inch board, spaced 
(from the other wall of the manger) 1 foot 6 inches at the bottom and 1 foot 
10 inches at the top. These sloping walls allow all feed to be swept back 
into the mangers and all trash to be easily removed from them. Build the 5- 
inch floor of the feedway, crowning it to 6 inches thick in the middle. (See 
"Sidewalks," Page 63). 

Horse Barn Floors. 

Concrete floors are equally as valuable for the horse barn as for the cow 
stable. The same principles govern the .floor construction. Naturally there 
must be a few changes in the dimensions. Single stalls are usually 5 feet wide 
and 9 feet from the front wall of the manger to the drop gutter. 

As the gutter is generally covered with a rough cast-iron plate sunk flush 
with the concrete, carrying liquids alone, it need not be so wide and deep as 
for the dairy barn. A clear width of 10 and a depth of 3 inches are sufficient. 

Concrete Mangers. 

Many farmers are today building their mangers or racks of concrete. 
"Stump suckers" lose the habit when fed in concrete mangers. 

The manger is constructed along the general lines laid down for Out- 
door Feeding Troughs, Page 72. A form satisfactory for building horse 
barn mangers is shown in the photograph. The feed trough can be molded 
as a part of the manger by using a box form like an ordinary wooden feeding 
trough, but 6 inches wider and without end pieces. Saw out the manger forms 
so that the box will fit the opening. When the manger forms have been filled 
with concrete to the feed trough level, place 1 inch of concrete over the bottom 
of the trough form, lay in a strip of heavy woven wire fencing, and then place 
the remaining 2 inches of the 3-inch bottom. Immediately set upon this con- 
crete a bottomless box with end pieces, of a size to allow for the 4-inch man- 
ger wall and the 3-inch side walls of the trough. Fill both manger and 
trough forms and imbed a ^-inch rod in the side walls of the trough 1 inch 



82 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

from the top. Make holes in the manger wall for the hitching strap by in- 
serting a 2-inch greased peg in the concrete. Imbed a 1-foot length of 1/2- 
inch rod in the concrete above this hole. 

Scientists have found that rats distribute more disease than any other ani- 
mal. Recognizing the danger, state and city authorities, the world over, are 
spending vast sums of money in exterminating this pest. If rats have no 
nesting-place, they cannot stay on the farm. Rats and mice cannot find a 
home about concrete floors, nor can they climb concrete barn walls. 

In a stable floored with concrete, the horses can rest at noontime instead 
of stamping at flies. 

Concrete Fence Posts. 

Some facts concerning the Durability of Timber Posts, taken from the Ohio 
Experiment Station Bulletin. 

Relative Durability of Post Timbers. — This may be compared to the 
durability of concrete posts as given farther on. 

Timber Post Facts. 

1. A large post usually lasts longer than a small one of the same 
wood. 

2. There is no difference which end is put in the ground, except that 
the sounder or larger end should have the preference. 

3. In stiff clay soil, the posts rot principally just beneath the top of the 
ground, and in a porous sandy or gravelly soil, they usually rot from the top- of 
the soil all the way down ; the effect is the same in both cases. 

4. In soil that is full of water all the time, posts will last longer. It 
is the alternating between wet and dry that causes decay. 

5. From data collected so far, seasoning does not seem to have any 
marked effect on durability. The best catalpa fence examined was set when 
green. In the best oak fence examined, the posts were cut and put in the 
ground the same day. Likewise some of the best fences are those in which 
the posts were well seasoned. 

It has been very difficult to get accurate data on the matter of seasoning, 
especially in fences where the posts have been only partially seasoned when 
set. But there has been a sufficient number found, in which the posts when 
set were well seasoned or entirely green, to justify the above conclusion. 

6. Timber that grows rapidly and in the open is not as good as the 
same variety that grows in the woods. This has been observed especially 
in the red cedar, the catalpa and the locust. 

7. There is some evidence that it is not a good time to cut posts just as the 
tree begins to grow in early spring. 

8. The wood at the center of the tree is not as good as that just inside 
the sap wood. This characteristic is very common with nearly all the va- 
rieties of timber examined, especially so with the locust, the white cedar, the 
hardy catalpa and the oaks. 



CONCRETE 83 

9. The quality of the wood or the condition of the wood fiber of a post 
is a very important item in its ability to endure in the soil. In an average 
lot of so-called first class posts on the market, usually a number can be 
selected that are defective, though they may appear sound and firm. This 
quality of post is usually somewhat darker than the usual color, especially 
near the center of the tree. 

At the State Experiment Station at Wooster, Ohio, there are on file the 
data of every fence that was examined in this investigation. These data 
contain, among other items, the name and address of the owner, the location 
of the fence on the farm, and the date the fence was examined. Any one who 
feels inclined to examine any of these fences that happen to be in his com- 
munity can get their location by writing to the Forestry Department of the 
Experiment Station. 

Concrete Fence Posts. — The timber posts discussed above lasted any- 
where from ten to fifty years. Only one kind of timber, the Osage Orange, 
had a good record of fifty years of age. The rest of them fell along the wayside 
considerably less than this age. As timber becomes scarce and high priced 
and cement much cheaper and easier to form into useful structures, the con- 
crete fence post is becoming the real solution to the problem. Timber fence 
posts, no matter what kind, must be kept up annually. This continual drain 
eats up what would otherwise go to make up profit. Farmers have been 
recognizing the value of concrete and are adopting this material for post 
construction. 

The early concrete posts of course were an experiment, but this is no 
longer the case. They do not rust or break, and do not need painting, can be 
made easily and in any size. Every farmer can make his own fence posts. 

It is important, however, that he follow instructions from experienced men. 

In the first place the size and length should be determined. The best 
material should be secured, both in concrete and kinds of steel. Use only 
reliable grades of Portland Cement and the best stone and sand available. 
The mixture should not be poorer than 1:2:3. Table 9, Page 87, gives 
dimensions of concrete line posts and materials needed. Note that the table 
gives the amount and sizes of all material needed. These dimensions are 
given for tapered post only and for a post of square section both at the bottom 
and top and all reinforcing is round rods. 

This type of home-made fence post molds is economical where only a 
few posts are to be made, or where only a few are to be made at a time. 
Where a large number are to be used, it would be well for the farmer to co- 
operate with his neighbor to buy a steel form. The advertisements in a farmi 
paper will give the names of a number of manufacturers who have these for' 
sale. After the farm fence post mold is made, plan the batches of concrete 1 
so that the mold will be filled in one mixing and no materials are wasted. 
The mold shown will make only four posts. It will be an easy matter for the 
farmer to make a mold which will manufacture two, three, four or five times 
that many at one time. Figure 18 will show how the reinforcing rods are 



84 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 




4 V 

Fig. 16 — Methods of Attaching Fence Wire to Concrete Posts 




WON HATC 3M-£ 



Fig. 17 — Type of Home-made Fence Post Mold That 
Permits Making Four Posts at a Time. Posts Made 
In This Mold Have Two Faces Parallel and Two 
Tapered. 



CONCRETE 



85 




Concrete end post with brace cast monolithic 
with the post. Such construction is rigid 
enough to stand almost any. fence strain th:U 












— —■ — 




/.^;..-;y 


'W 


'■WlmW'i- 


.- ■„; ' : 




.- ."...'..__.. . 


ilp==iP 


wm 


X:.- 




Concrete 


end posts 


braced like this need no further 
they are plnced. 


attention. 


once 





86 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



placed. Figure 16 will show the methods of attaching the fence wire to the 
concrete post. Plate 27, Page 85, will show a concrete fence corner. 



it 



Spacer of hay-t?oi//ng i*i(^ 
wire bent with loops l ~~ s %\ 

as shown 




4 reinforcing rods at 



each corner ■—■' from 
surface, of post 

Fig. 18 — Simple Spacers For Reinforcing Rods, to Hold Them In 

Correct Position While Placing Concrete In The Post 

Mold, Can Readily Be Made By Twisting Wire 

As Shown In This Illustration 



SxS BRACE 




Fig. 19— Suggestion For a Form For Casting In Place Corner or 
End Posts With The Necessary Brace 



Corner End Posts and Post for Gateway.— Fig. 19, Page 86, will show 
the method of constructing forms for a corner post. Plates 26-27 show 
the completed post. 

Table 10 will give quantities and dimensions of corner post and ma- 
terials needed. 



CONCRETE 

TABLE 9. 

Dimensions of concrete line posts, and materials needed 



87 





VIENSIONS 


Volume 

of 

Post 

in 
Cubic 
Feet 


Weight 

of 
Post 

in 
Pounds 


Amount 
of 

Rein- 
forcing 

Metal 
Required 


MATERIALS 


DI 


1 -Cement" 3-Sand 


1-Cement 2-Sand 3-Pebbles 




No. 
Posts 
Per 


Fok 10 Posts 


No. 
Posts 

Per 
Barrel 
Cement 


For 10 Po 






Top 


Bottom 


3TS 


Length 


Sacks 


Cu.Ft. 


Sacks 


Cu. Ft. 


Cu.Ft. 














Cement 


Cement 


Sand 


Cement 


Sand 


Pebbles 


(1) 


(2) 


(3) 


(4) 


(5) 


(6) 


(7) 


(8) 


(9) 


(10) 


(11) 


(12) 


(13) 


6' 6" 


3"x3" 


5"x5" 


.72 


100.8 


Four 


15.7 


2.6 


11.5 


21.7 


1.9 


3.7 


5.5 


7'0" 


3"x3" 


5"x5" 


.78 


109.2 


M" 


14.5 


2.8 


12.4 


20.0 


2.0 


4.1 


6.0 


7' 6" 


3"*3" 


5"x5" 


.83 


116.6 


Round 


13.6 


3.0 


13.2 


18.8 


2.1 


4.3 


6.4 


8'0" 


3"x3" 


5"x5" 


.89 


124.6 


Rods 


12.7 


3.2 


14.2 


17.5 


2.3 


4.4 


6.8 


€'. 6" 


4"x4" 


5"x5" 


.91 


127.4 


Four 


12.4 


3.2 


14.5 


17.1 


2.3 


4.7 


7.0 


7'0" 


4"x4" 


5"x5" 


.98 


137.2 


T5 


11.5 


3.5 


15.6 


15.9 


2.5 


5.1 


7.5 


7'C" 


4"x4" 


5"x5" 


1.05 


147.0 


Round 


10.8 


3.7 


16.7 


14.8 


2.7 


5.5 


8.1 


8'0" 


4"x4" 


5"x5" 


1.12 


156.8 


Rods 


10.1 


4.0 


17.8 


13.9 


2.9 


5.8 


8.6 


6' 6" 


5"x5" 


6"x6" 


1.36 


191.1 


Four 


8.3 


4.9 


2r.7 


11.4 


3.5 


7.1 


10.5 


TO" 


5"x5" 


6"x6" 


1.47 


205.8 


3 A" 


7.7 


5.2 


23.4 


10.6 


3.8 


7.6 


11.3 


7' 6" 


5"x5" 


6"x6" 


1.57 


220.5 


Round 


7.2 


5.6 


25.1 


9.6 


4.1 


8.2 


12.1 


8'0" 


5"x5" 


6"x6" 


1.68 


235.2 


Rods 


6.7 


6.0 


26.8 


9.3 


4.3 


8.7 


12.9 



Concrete gate posts may be made quite attractive by building on a capi- 
tal and base, then panelling the sides. A farmer boy with a little artistic trend 
can make up forms for various kinds of decorations for posts. 

TABLE 10. 
Dimensions of corner posts and materials needed 











Amount 

of 

Reinforcing 

Metal 


MATERIALS 


DIMENSIONS 


Volume 

of 

Posts 


Weight 
Posts 


1-Cement 3-Sand 


1-Cement 2-S 


AND 3-PEEBLE3 






No. 


For 1 Post 


No. 


For 1 Post 






in 


in 


Required 


Posts 






Posts 








Length 


Size 


Cu. Ft. 


Pounds 


for 
Each Post 


Per 

Barrel 
Cement 


Sacks 
Cement 


Cu.Ft. 
Sand 


Per 
Barrel 

Cement 


Sacks 
Cement 


Sand 
Cu. Ft. 


Pebbles 
Cu.Ft 


(1) 


(2) 


(3) 


(4) 


(5) 


(6) 


(7) 


(8) 


(9) 


(10) 


(11) 


(12) 


8'Q" 


6"x 6"' 


2.0 


280 


Four 


5.7 


.7 


2.1 


7.8 


0.5 


1.0 


1.5 


7"x 7" 


2.72 


381 


7 // 


4.1 


1.0 


2.9 


5.7 


0.7 


1.4 


2.1 


8' 6" 


7"x 7" 


2.89 


405 


Round Rods 


3.9 


1.0 


3.1 


5.4 


0.7 


1.5 


2.2 


8'0" 


8"x 8" 


3.56 


498 


Four 


3.2 


1.3 


3.8 


4.4 


0.9 


1.8 


2.7 


8' 6" 


8"x 8" 


3.78 


528 


16 


3.0 


1.3 


4.0 


4.1 


1.0 


2.0 


2.9 


9'0" 


8"x 8" 


4.00 


560 


Round Rods 


2.8 


1.4 


4.2 


3.9 


1.0 


2.1 


3.1 


8'0" 


10"xl0" 


5.55 


776 


Four 


2.0 


2.0 


5.9 


2.8 


1.4 


2.9 


4.3 


8' 6" 


10"xl0" 


5.90 . 


826 


W 


1.9 


2.1 


6.3 


2.7 


1.5 


3.1 


4.6 


9'0" 


10"xl0" 


6.25 


875 


Round Rods 


1.8 


2.2 


6.6 


2.5 


1.6 


3.3 


4.S 


10' 0" 


5"x 5" 


1.73 


243 


Four % /%' 


6.5 


.6- 


1.8 


9.0 


4.4 


0.9 


1.3 


12' 0" 


5"x 5" 


2.03 


292 


Round Rods 


5.4 


.7 


2.2 


7.5 


5.3 


1 1 


1.6 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Cisterns. 

A cistern is a useful and often a very necessary article. A leaky one is 
useless. A concrete cistern has no joints or cracks and therefore can not 
leak. It is sanitary and does not give up any of the lime which makes the 
water hard, therefore an ideal cistern. 

Place the cistern convenient to the inside plumbing - . Make it big enough 
to allow for 8-inch walls, lying outside of the plan. A large cistern is more 
useful than a small one. 

Construction. 

Stake out the limits of the hole and dig it, being careful to keep the soil 
quiet and firm, so it will stand alone if possible. If the soil is of a caving 

nature, the outside form must be 



Went Pt<*9 



A a 

•■■■9.0. 



,/aV 



V 









w 



A"/ < 



% 



ills 



% 



a; 






Fie. 20 



V 



J=^ 



'■a;/ 



AJ 

■a a 

Ma 
A'.-A 



placed as fast as the hole is dug and 
properly braced across the top. After 
the hole is dug and the outside form 
placed if necessary, mix the concrete 
1:2:4 and lay a 6-inch reinforced 
floor in the bottom. First put four 
inches of concrete, then lay in some 
chicken wire, and put two inches of 
concrete on top of that. Then im- 
mediately set the inside wall forms on 
all sides and carefully shovel the con- 
crete in place. Use long poles to tamp 
the concrete as fast as it is placed in 
about 6-inch layers and spade it well 
against the side of the form. (See 
Figure 20). 

After the concrete side walls 
have been brought to the ground level, 
set a 5-inch board on edge around the 
outside of the cistern so as to hold the concrete on the platform. Saw off the up- 
rights of the inside form, six inches below the finished top of the concrete cover 
and nail 2x4-inch joists even with their tops. Floor the joist with one-inch boards. 
Columns or bases may be placed in the middle of the wooden platform to keep 
from sagging. The manhole opening can be made with a bottomless box with 
tapered sides as shown in Figure 21 and Plate 28, or a tinsmith may make a tin 
form of the same shape or round. After placing the manhole form, begin at one 
side of the platform and tamp iy 2 inches of concrete upon it. Lay a heavy woven 
wire fencing on top of this and bend the ends of the wire down into the outside 
walls about six or eight inches, then cover the wire with d]/ 2 inches of concrete. 
Work rapidly and do not stop the work until the cistern is complete. After 
the top form is filled, trowel off the top surface with a wooden float. It is 
better to reinforce the manhole cover by placing four short half-inch iron rods 
along each side and about two inches from the bottom. After the floor has 



• vci . -^ iv^v-jo <2>'-c; 



CONCRETE 



89 




Fig. 21 






properly set, pull out the manhole form, cover the sides of the manhole with 
paper or oil, so that new concrete will not stick to it. Fill in y 2 -'mch on the 
manhole, then lay a few small rods, say about a half-inch in diameter, criss- 
cross through the hole. Have on hand an old bridle bit or hitching post ring 
to serve as a lifting ring for the concrete cover. Be sure to anchor the bit 
well in the concrete with a twisted wire or a big nut and washer. After 
it has set for one or two weeks, the cover may be easily lifted by taking hold of 

the ring. Remove the cover, cut through the forms, 
descend into the cistern, tear out all woodwork, and 
paint the inside with a neat cement paint. The open- 
ings for downspout and outlets may be made by in- 
serting tile. 

To keep the water clear and pure the first re- 
quisite is to waste the first water that comes off the 
roof. An ingenious method is to run it into a barrel 
containing a float, which when raised to the top of 
the barrel, will operate a valve to cut over the water 
from the barrel and turn it into the cistern. After each 
rain, the barrel is emptied so that the first water of the 
next rain will fill the barrel and thus wash the roof. 

Simple filters may also be constructed just out- 
side the cistern wall. It can be made of concrete in a 
similar way to the cistern, the. dimensions about 4x3x4 
feet deep. One wall of the cistern can serve as one 
wall of the filter. Through this an 8-inch tile should be laid on a level with the 
filter floor. A small %-inch mesh removable screen should be placed over this 
opening. Put two feet of coarse charcoal, cover with one foot of coarse sand 
and gravel. Run the cistern water from the roof in top of the filter. Cover the 
filter with a loose concrete slab. Remove sand and charcoal and replace with new 
material once a year. 

Four men built a cistern 8 feet square and 8 feet deep with a 6-inch floor 
and a 5-inch platform in two days. The cistern holds 122 barrels of 31^ 
gallons each. 

The Material Required. 

Screened gravel or crushed rock 8 cu. yds. 

Sand " 4 cu. yds. 

Portland Cement 13 barrels 

Make cistern large enough to store plenty of water through any drought 
period so that bathing and washing may be done regularly with soft water. 
Make covers to cistern large and heavy so that mischievous children can not 
remove them. 

Stairways and Steps. 
Stairways and steps are usually considered difficult to build from con- 
crete. After observing cuts shown, this will be proven untrue. Concrete 
is an ideal material for stairways and steps, especially in the basement, where 
timber soon rots out.. 



90 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Construction of Basement Steps. 

First excavate the required space. Build the form rigidly in place. (See 
Fig. 22). Build the side walls and allow it to set for a week. Remove the 
forms from the walls and construct a form similar to the one in Figure 23. 




Fig. 22 — Forms in Position For Retaining Walls for Cellar Steps 



Step Forms. 

The best type of form is shown in Figure 23. Cross pieces are wedged 
between the side walls and assisted by a bracing, supported from a frame, 
also wedged between the walls. For a starting point mark on the side wall 
the position of the top of the finished landing, which should be the same ele- 
vation as the basement floor (Figure 24). Measure out along this line 
from the face of the building wall a distance equal to the width of the pro- 
posed landing, less the thickness of the material to be used as cross forms ; this 
point can be designated as "Q." From "Q" measure vertically a distance 
equal to the rise of one step ; this point which will be referred to as "R" 
indicates the point to which the upper outside corner of the cross form will 
come. 

Locate a point at the junction of the face of the side wall with the building 
wall, a distance from the level of the finished landing equal to the rise of 
four or more steps ; measure out from this point in a horizontal direction 
a distance equal to the tread of one less number of steps than used in getting 



CONCRETE 



91 



the elevation, plus the width of landing, less the thickness of the raised form ; 
this point will be known as "W." Draw a line along the face of the wall 
through "R" and "W." Starting at "R" the distance "X" between points can 
be selected from Table "A." After these points are located, project a vertical 
line through each by the use of a plumb level. 




Figure 23. Method of laying out form3 for cellar steps. 




Fig. 24 — -Method of Laying Out Basement Steps 



92 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



The cross pieces which are held in place by wedges should be cut about a 
quarter of an inch shorter than the distance between the walls. In placing 
these bring the face flush with the vertical line, the upper outside corner com- 
ing to a point located on the line "R-W." 

TABLE II. 
Distance "X." (See Figure 24 



Rise in Inches 


TREAD IN INCHES 




m 


9 


9^ 


10 


iok 


11 


11 J* 


12 


6 


10H 

n 

11 16 
11 16 


n* 

11 16 

12 


UK 

12* 

12^ 
12^ 


ll^i 
11 16 

11 *£ 

11 16 

121* 
12H 

12 M 


12 H 
12* 

12tt 

13 

13* 


123^ 
12« 
13 

13* 
13^ 


12« 
13* 
13* 
13i* 
14 


13* 


6M 

7 ..»-. 

7V2 

8 


13tt 
13*1 

14* 
14* 













In addition to wedging, which should be sufficient to keep the cross pieces 
in a true horizontal position, bracing, as shown in Figure 23, is desirable 
to keep them from being pushed out when the concrete is placed. It will be 
noted that the upper ends of the vertical pieces supporting the cross forms 
are nailed to pieces which are held tightly against the walls by braces between 
them. This frame should be built in place, as better results will be obtained than if 
placed after building. 

Portland Cement Stucco. 

Stucco is not a new method of surface finish. It dates back almost as far 
as history goes. The Greeks and Romans developed the use of stucco to a 
high degree and used it not only for a protective but decorative purposes. 
Much has been done in this country, in Mexico, New Mexico and in California 
by the early Indians. 

With the development of Portland Cement the use of stucco has grown 
with great rapidity. When properly made, the cement stucco is easily applied, 
absolutely reliable and permanent. Stucco may be used on new or old sur- 
faces. 

Constituents of Stucco. 

Stucco is a mixture of Portland Cement and sand with the addition of 
one part to ten parts of cement. The lime may be either hydrated or slaked 
lump lime. 

The hvdrated lime is a lump lime slaked with water by a mechanical 
process. The moisture driven off leaves the lime dry in the form of an 
impalpable powder. 

Hydrated lime is probably more satisfactory as it has been thoroughly 
slaked and there is no chance of damaging the stucco with unslaked lime. 
However, if care be taken in slaking the lump lime, giving it plenty of water 
and leaving it stand for several days, there will be no trouble from that 



CONCRETE 93 

source. After the lime has completely slaked, it is run off into a crater of 
sand, the lime and sand are thoroughly mixed, enough sand being used to form 
a thick paste. One part of lime to nine parts of sand are needed. The cement 
and remainder of sand are added just before the plaster is applied and only 
a small quantity should be prepared at one time. The cement sets rapidly 
and if this occurs before application, it will lose its value. Be sure to observe 
this point as it is important. Mix only enough to last 15 or 20 minutes. 

The lime is added to make the mixture impervious and fatten the mortar 
so it will cover up more surface and work much easier with a float. The final 
mixture with cement and sand and lime should be wet enough to work easily 
but not enough to cause it to flow after it is applied. 

Stucco Lath. 

Two kinds of lath are supplied on the market, metal and wood lath. 
Metal lath is the better and easier applied. 

Metal lath must be protected from corrosion. It must either have a 
backing of wood sheathing or must be plastered on both sides. In order to 
plaster it on both sides, force the mortar through with the trowel against 
the back well so as to form a tight covering. This will imbed the lath entirely. 

Several styles of stucco boards are on the market. Be careful about 
buying cheap boards, as some of them have no merit except cheapness. Care 
should also be taken in applying the mixture. 

Application of Stucco. 

Application of stucco requires a good deal of patience and perseverance. 
The old adage, "If at first you don't succeed try, try again." applies well, but before 
trying again, read the instructions carefully to see that nothing has been forgotten. 

Be sure to have the proper materials and mix them in the proper way 
and particularly at the prop.er time. Remember that the stucco must be 
applied immediately after the cement is added. If the day is hot the mixture 
will dry rapidly. Small amounts of water will have to be added from time to 
time unless the mixing board is covered with a damp cloth. The stucco 
should not be exposed to sun or heating; either one will destroy it. After the 
stucco is placed do not disturb it until the cement is entirely set. 

Methods of Applying Stucco on Old Brick. 

Pick back the joints between the brick ^-inch. Clean surface with solu- 
tion 1 part commercial muriatic acid and 5 parts water. Wash off acid 
thoroughly. Saturate surface thoroughly just before applying plaster, and 
keep wet as plaster is placed. Start plastering at top of wall. Make each coat 
continuous. Stops shall be made only where natural breaks occur in the wall 
surface. If no breaks occur, plaster the whole surface from edge to edge in one 
operation. 

For proportion see Page 94, Table 12. 



94 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Instead of applying the cement plaster directly to the brick, wire or 
expanded metal is sometimes fastened to the brick, and the stucco placed on 
it. Metal furring strips, placed from 12 to 18 inches apart, are attached 
to plugs driven in the joints of the brickwork, flush with the surface, and the 
wire is fastened to these strips. The strips should be y 2 -'mch thick. The 
stucco is then applied by spreading it over the wire and forcing it into the 
meshes. 

Making Old Frame Buildings New. 

This may be done by covering the building with metal lath and stuccoing 
as previously described. 

Stucco on New Work. 

There are hardly any new features to this. The metal lath can be ap- 
plied to the studding and the stucco placed as has been described. Below is 
a table giving quantities for 100 square yard lath. 

TABLE NO. 12 





Material 


Lineal Ft. 
per Lb. 


Pounds Required 


Width of Furring 


12-inch 16-inch 
Centers Centers 




Flat Wire 
Band Iron 
Band Iron 
Band Iron 


20 
20 

15 
10 . 


50 37 


3^-inch (specified) 22 gauge 


40 34 

67 45 
90 67 



Surface Finish and Coloring. 

The architectural possibilities of Portland Cement stucco houses are 
many and varied. The surface can be treated with many of the various 
methods described on Page 94, and in addition the stucco can be colored in 
many ways. Mix the coloring matter through as directed on Page 58. The table 
of colors is also found on that page. 

Surface Finish for Concrete. 

There are several ways for finishing the surface of concrete to make 
it look architecturally beautiful. For inside work especially the average farmer 
could -do a limited amount of this. Probably the simplest would be to mold 
the concrete in the ordinary way, then scrub the walls with a solution of 
muriatic acid. This will clean off the pebbles in the concrete that are next to 
the surface and give it a mottled appearance, which improves the old concrete 
surface very much. 

Another method which is used quite a good deal, is to grind the surface 
with emery or carborundum. This will give an imitation of a mosaic, which 
is very beautiful especially when pebbles of various colors have been used to 
make the concrete. 

Another method which is illustrated in Plate 31 is accomplished by imbed- 



CONCRETE 



95 




late 36— This is'' « view" of like above' structure as it appeared v,r=c: 
finished, . .„.. -_i .-.-. .' — - _..~~™ — 



96 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 




tile imbedded 
has been wort 
making a fire 




Plate 32 — Small garatrc with metal lath 'ready for first coat. Note 
I that this building is without sheathing and thus intended for back- 
plastered wall construction. „ 



CONCRETE 97 

ding broken pieces of pottery, burned clay or china in the surface of the com- 
crete, in such a way as to work out certain designs. The women on the farm 
will find this a very interesting and profitable pastime. 

Slab Method. — After these designs are worked out, lay the pieces of tile 
or burned clay on the forms in reverse order, and pour the concrete backing 
over them about one inch deep. Then put on some wire netting and another 
inch of concrete and let set. When hardened sufficiently, set the slab in 
place and cement it With mortar. This method has one disadvantage, the 
structure has to be made in pieces and then must be joined together after- 
wards. Unless the joints are very carefully made or worked into the design, 
it may not be so satisfactory. 

Monolithic or One-Piece Method. — This work can be made without 
joints. Place the forms in the usual way. Coat with a thin layer of clay 
to make a bed in which the tile may be laid as before in reverse order. 
Then pour the concrete behind it. After setting properly, the forms are taken 
down and the clay can be washed off with a spray of water. This will leave 
the surface and give it a mottled appearance, which improves the old concrete 

If it is desired to imbed the tile, they may be fastened to the form in 
reverse order by melting paraffin around them. If the concreting is done very 
carefully, it will remain in place during the placing and setting of the concrete, 
and the paraffin being weaker than the concrete, the forms can be removed 
without tearing the tile loose. The paraffin may be washed off with a solvent 
or the surface may be warmed with a torch and wiped off. 

With a little practice along any of these lines, considerable proficiency 
can be attained, and beautiful work will be the result. 



MODERN HEATING PLANTS. 



The old fashioned fireplace, although not yet extinct, has been replaced, 
for the most part, by numerous systems of heating which will heat the whole 
house at the same cost that a fireplace will heat one room. Formerly, 
houses were built with but one room in order that the fireplace might heat 
the whole house. With modern systems of plumbing and heating, the house 
may be designed for other conveniences and the heating system installed after- 
ward. In other words, the heating system is made to heat the house and not 
the house made so that the heating system can serve it. The first improvement 
in the fireplace was the stove. These can be bought now in many designs 
and sizes, a hard-coal base-burner, being the highest type. The advantages 
of the base-burner are its cleanliness, evenness of heat, and convenience of op- 
eration. However, it is like the fireplace. It is good for only one room at a 
time, and heats only one part of the room. In order to become thoroughly 
warm at a base-burner, one must turn around several times. To eliminate 
this inconvenience, further improvements in heating have been devised. The 
simplest and cheapest of these is the hot-air furnace. 

Advantages of a Hot-Air Furnace. 

The advantages of a hot-air furnace are many : 

1st. Cheapness in first cost. 

2nd. Simplicity of operation. 

3rd. Sanitation. 

4th. Ventilation. 

5th. No obstruction in the room. 

6th. No freezing. 

7th. Economy in fuel, especially when temperature control device is used 

Disadvantages. 

1st. Short life. 

2nd. Maintenance to keep it clean. 

3rd. Does not hold heat well. 

4th. Hard to design and install properly because of delicacy in pro- 
portioning of lead pipe, size and location. 

The simplest furnace on the market is the Pipeless Hot-Air Strange to 
say, it is the last one to have been perfected. This furnace is set in the base- 
ment, and has but one register opening, which is directly above the furnace. 
Its principle is very simple. It is nothing more than a stove inside of a double 

98 



MODERN HEATING PLANTS 



99 




100 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

box. The stove heats the air of the inside box which rises immediately into 
the room through the central register. Another cold-air register surrounds 
the central, so that the cold air may come in from all sides and go down 
through the space between the inside box and the outside box. The air then 
enters the inside box from below, where it is heated by the stove and rises 
through the register as before. 

Reports on this type of furnace show that it is very efficient. Where 
the house is built and used by a private family it is very satisfactory. It is 
better that the inner doors of the house be kept open at all times so that the 
heat may circulate. Any rooms that need not be heated may be closed off 
by closing the doors. With ceiling registers, and the doors cut off at the 
bottom, the upstairs may be as easily heated as with any kind of furnace. 
Where privacy is not desired, this system is highly recommended. 

The Pipe Hot-Air Furnace. 

A higher type of furnace than the one just previously mentioned is the 
pipe hot-air furnace. This circulates the air, in very much the same way, 
throughout the house but makes each room private and the heat supply can 
be cut off either at the room or. in the basement. In the selection of these 
furnaces it is necessary first to select one large enough. Measure the cubical 
contents of the house and usually it is best to buy a furnace one size larger 
than the maker recommends. 

The Design and Installation of Hot-Air Furnace. 

The hot air furnace is probably one of the most sanitary means of heating 
the house. It keeps the air in circulation and makes it possible to draw in fresh 
air from the outside heated to a living temperature. Very few, if any, hot air 
plants are designed and placed properly. It must be remembered that the move- 
ment of the air is dependent upon the difference in weight between cold air and 
hot air. It is evident that this difference is very small indeed, and any small 
influence which might oppose this difference will make the system inoperative. 
The furnace should be so placed that each lead will be balanced against the others 
with no part of the house having an advantage over the other, and the fur- 
nace placed low enough so that the hot air may have a chance to rise and 
take advantage of its difference in weight over the cold air. Then the sys- 
tem will work perfectly in any kind of weather and any part of the house. 
There are three or possibly four principal precautions. First, the furnace 
should be located as near the center of the house as possible. When impos- 
sible to locate in the center, it should be placed considerably deeper than 
would otherwise be necessary. Second, it should be placed deep enough so 
that the heat pipes will rise on leaving the furnace and will continue to rise until 
they open into the room. Third, the lead pipes should be as near the same length 
as possible. Fourth, there should be few sharp bends. With these precautions 
taken care of, a hot air furnace may be designed and placed which will give per- 
fect satisfaction. 



MODERN HEATING PLANTS 



101 



Ordering the Hot Air Furnace. 

Make a plan, Fig. 2, of the home showing the size and exact location of 
every room. Take the depth of the basement and the distance between the floors 
and ceilings of each room. Send this to the furnace manufacturer, and ask him 
for a plan. If his plan conforms to the principles stated above, order the plant. 
If not, ask him to change it accordingly. Many furnace companies have com- 



wff/^y^a 







Scalefy'/' 



SCCONO FLOOR RADIATOR RlAA/ 
Fier. 2 



petent engineering forces who understand these four principles, but unfortunately 
some wish to sell their goods more than they wish to install them properly. If 
their goods do not work they blame the installation. 

The Chimney. 

It is common knowledge with all users of stoves, furnaces and fireplaces, 
that the chimney is a very important part of the equipment. The chimney should 
be made as large as the furnace demands, and should not serve any other stove 
or furnace. That is, a chimney should be made to serve but one fire unit and if 
made as large as the door opening or a minimum of 20 inches, it will always 



102 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

give perfect service. It is better to have too much draft than not enough as it is 
always possible to cut off the draft when it is often impossible to increase it. 

Construction of Chimney. 

The chimney may be made either of brick, concrete, or tile. Brick is the most 
common. Concrete is coming into use very rapidly. Either concrete or brick 
chimneys should be lined with clay tile. Chimney tile is a protection of the brick 
and concrete against the hot gases. It also gives a smooth surface and is less 
liable to become covered with soot. It is more fire-proof. 

Other Heating Systems. 

There are three other heating systems which are said by many to be superior 
to the hot air. This is a matter of opinion. They have some advantages and 
some disadvantages. They are the hot water, the steam, and the vapor systems. 
The hot water is the oldest and the most advantageous in some ways. The ad- 
vantages and disadvantages will be listed below in comparison : 

Advantages : 

1. Positive Heating. 4. Cleanliness in Operation. 

2. Uniform Heating. 5. Cheapness in Fuel Consumption. 

3. Ease of Operation. 

Disadvantages : 

1. High First Cost. 4. Radiators in Valuable Space. 

2. Liability to Freeze. 5. Radiators Hard to Clean. 

3. Slowness to Heat up. 6. Leaky Water Joints. 

Steam System. — The steam system has about the same advantages and 
disadvantages as the hot water, except it heats quickly, but does not hold the 
heat so long. It is high in first cost but not so high as the hot water system. 
It takes more trouble to operate and maintain. Not liable to freezing. 

Vapor System. — The vapor system is about half way between the steam 
and hot water systems in advantages with the exception that its cost, due to 
recent patents, is as high as the hot water usually. 

Installation of Hot Water, Steam and Vapor Systems. 

The installation of hot water, steam and vapor systems is very much alike. 
Hbwever, the hot water system will be taken up first and handled in detail. As in 
the case of a hot air furnace, a building plan should be carefully made and sent 
to the manufacturer, who employs competent heating engineers to make out a 
suitable plan for heating. If the dimensions sent to them are correct, they will 
be able to give sizes and lengths of every piece of pipe that goes in the system. 
These will be shipped, properly labeled, so that they can be placed by the average 
farmer boy of twenty years. 

Send a typical floor plan as shown in Figure 2. Be sure to give the depth of 
basement and height of ceiling in each floor. This is very important. Show all 



MODERN HEATING PLANTS 103 

windows and doors. Calculate cubical contents of house and use Tables for 
selecting size of furnace. 

The Hot Water Boiler. — There are a number of hot water boilers on the 
market. The efficiency of these boilers depends upon keeping them clean and in 
good working order. The hot gases from the coal pass by a cool surface which puts 
out the incandescent pieces of carbon, thereby causing them to be deposited as soot 
on this surface. When the soot becomes thick it acts as an insulator to the passage 
of heat. Hence to prevent heat loss the water tube should be kept clean and also 
free from any rust. 

Location of the Furnace. — In hot water systems it is not so important to 
place the hot water furnace in the center of the building as it is when placing hot 
air furnaces. However, the design is different for various positions of the fur- 
nace. The short leads from the furnace to adjacent rooms will receive more heat 
than long leads. The engineering force at the manufacturer's office will correct 
this by making sharp bends in the short pipes and none in the long pipes. This 
will balance one difficulty against the other and make the system heat uniform 
throughout the building. 

Piping. — It is not economy to put in too small a pipe system. The manu- 
facturer will usually recommend the correct size. If he makes an error (either 
way) it will be larger rather than smaller which will be an advantage rather than 
a disadvantage to the operation of the system. It is absolutely necessary that 
all pipes be sloped or graded toward the furnace so when the system is to be 
cleaned all the pipes can be emptied to prevent freezing and also aid in the 
circulation of the water for heating purposes. 

Radiators. — It should be remembered that the lower form of radiator is 
more efficient than the higher ones, although they are more expensive. The size 
of radiator is indicated by the number of square feet of heating surface. These 
have been accurately measured by the manufacturer and can be depended upon 
by the customer. 

Operation. — After the system has been properly installed and filled with 
water, it should be tested for leaks. When these are taken care of it is ready for 
use. There is nothing extraordinary to do in the operation of a hot water system. 
Merely make a fire in the furnace as you are accustomed to do in any stove or 
heating device. When the water has reached a temperature which will make the 
room comfortable, hold the fire at that heat by properly setting the cutoff and the 
drafts. This can be done if the furnace has been selected large enough for the 
plant. 

In no case should the furnace be operated without a good chimney and a cut- 
off in the pipes. A cutoff is a great saver of fuel if properly operated. 

Temperature Control or Thermostat. — There are a number of tempera- 
ture control devices on the market which are very successful. These should 
be connected with the front draft and the cutoff and check in the chimney. When 
the temperature in the room above is lowered, the device will operate the draft 
and check in such a way as to build up the fire. When the temperature rises to 
the required room temperature, the apparatus will close down the fire. This is 
not only a wonderful convenience but also a great saver of fuel. 



104 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Steam Heating Systems. 

As stated before, steam heating systems are cheaper than hot water systems, 
in first cost, but they are more difficult to maintain and operate. For convenience 
it is practically necessary to have some kind of temperature control apparatus as 
spoken of above. For very large plants where it occupies one man's time to take 
care of the furnaces, steam systems are the best, but in the small plants such as 
the farmer uses, the steam system without a temperature control requires so much 
attention compared with hot water, that it would be advisable to adopt the latter 
when possible. 

The steam system requires only one set of pipes and a small amount of radia- 
tion. Each radiator is equipped with automatic valves that let out the cold air as 
the steam pressure comes on in the morning. As soon as the cool air is out and the 
warm steam strikes the valve, it automatically closes. As the steam in the radiator 
condenses the water of condensation runs back in the lower part of the pipe and 
fresh steam comes up in the upper half. The plant is kept warm as long as fire 
keeps the steam pressure up. Such steam under pressure is hotter than hot water. 
More heat will be given off per square foot of heating surface. Therefore, the 
radiators can be smaller. Like the hot water system, the pipes should all drain 
toward the furnace. 

Installation of Steam Heating Systems. — Like the hot water system, a 
plan should be sent to the manufacturer who will in turn send drawings and speci- 
fications and bill of material necessary for such a plant. It is not advisable for 
the farmer to attempt to design such a plan. However, after putting in one plant 
and using it awhile, a little study will help him to suggest improvements or additions 
as he may need them. It is very necessary with any of these plumbing systems 
installed to have the joints tight. Red lead or some special filler could be used 
on every screw joint. 

Vapor Heating Systems. 

The vapor heating system is an invention of recent years. Wherever it has 
been properly installed, it has given excellent satisfaction. It has a few advantages 
over both steam and hot water systems. It consists of a furnace and radiator 
system which is air tight. When this system is installed, an opening is made at 
each radiator and a big fire built. When steam has escaped from each radiator 
opening for some time, in order to insure that all the air is out of the system, 
these openings are all closed and sealed. When the fire goes down and the pressure 
drops, a vacuum is created in which water will boil at a much lower temperature 
than the ordinary boiling point, which is 212 degrees. When the fire is made up 
again, warm vapor will begin to rise in the pipe at 150 degrees, whereas in the 
steam it takes 212 degrees or more. This is quite an advantage. The system works 
on less pressure and the heat storage is greater than steam, but not so much as hot 
water. Considering all the advantages and disadvantages of the last three sys- 
tems, the vapor system is considered by many to be the best and most advanced 
in design. 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 
DISPOSAL FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 



Introduction. — It is the purpose of this chapter to handle in a simple way 
such parts of the subject of farm sanitation as is necessary for the convenience 
and health required. 

1st. A pure supply of water is necessary. 

2nd. Sewage must be disposed of in a sanitary way. With the assist- 
ance of the Department of Agriculture the following pages were written. 

Due acknowledgment is given to those authorities mentioned. 

It is well at this time to digress from the proposed discussions of this 
subject and list some of the advantages accruing from the proper installation 
of water supply and sewage disposal systems. 

The efficiency of today demands that the useless waste of man power be 
diminished. Consider the comparison of employing man power to carry water 
in buckets to supply a city or a home, to the now wonderfully efficient water 
works plants, which will deliver water any place about the house under pres- 
sure and in any quantity at the rate of 6c per ton. Is there any commodity, 
besides air, so cheap? The farmer has identically the same problem. Com- 
pare the expense of the farm hands at 20c an hour pumping water against the 
kerosene engine which can do it for less than 2c an hour. Compare the lost 
time in walking back and forth with pails to the saving when one trip is 
made to turn on or off a faucet. 

It is the inconveniences about a farm that drive a large number of the 
boys to the city. In this day of highly developed manufacture, it is possible 
at a reasonable cost for the farmer to have all the conveniences of the city 
life ; plumbing, heating and lighting plants are made in small sizes that are 
cheap and durable. 

Installation of Modern Conveniences. — It is the fear of every farmer who 
desires the conveniences of city life that he will be unable to install or operate 
it because of its complexity. A few years ago the farmer would not buy an 
automobile because he was afraid he could not run the engine. Such an 
explanation is hardly necessary today. In the same way the imaginary com- 
plexities of electricity, plumbing and heating are being overcome by the 
sciences of engineering and manufacture. The modern conveniences neces- 
sary about the farm are now manufactured in large quantities. They are 
more simple of installation and operation than the automobile which is bought 
by such a large number of the farmers. 

Plumbing. — The plumbing business in large cities is controlled by the 
plumbing union. At the bottom of the system are good reasons for this con- 

105 



106 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

dition, but, unfortunately, the ideals of union control have been grossly 
abused. The control and abuse has not yet reached the farmer. If the first 
must come, it is hoped that the second will never arrive. The farmer is an 
all around mechanic. He can, during his leisure hours in the winter, install 
his plumbing and heating system himself. 

Quality of Material. — Low grade quality in materials in heating, plumb- 
ing and lighting are a serious menace to the health and profits of the farm. 
Buy standard materials of reliable manufacture and require a guarantee of 
quality. 

Sewage Disposal Systems. 

The installation of the sewage disposal system is suggested. This will 
not be difficult for the farmer, since he is accustomed to the handling of 
brick, tile and earth excavation. Other instructions will not be necessary. 

THE FARM WATER SUPPLY. 

Dangers from Contamination. — Without doubt many of the germ diseases 
may be transmitted by means of water; and some of the diseases are so 
uniformly transmitted by water that they are known as "water-borne" 
diseases, and if they may be carried by water it is of the greatest importance 
that every precaution be taken to insure a pure water supply. 

Farm water supplies may be divided into three classes, which, in the 
order of their liability to pollution, are: surface, shallow underground, and 
deep underground supplies. That from the surface is obtained from streams, 
ponds, reservoirs, and cisterns; both shallow and deep underground supplies 
are obtained from dug, bored, driven, or drilled wells, and from springs. 

That farm water supplies are very subject to pollution is evidenced by 
the investigations of various authorities. The investigations of K. F. Keller- 
man and H. A. Whitaker, of the United States Department of Agriculture, 
in co-operation with the Minnesota State Board of Health, indicate that of 
79 carefully selected and typical water supplies in Minnesota 20 were good 
and 59 were polluted. Of the polluted wells 11 were so located that even 
extreme care would not make them safe ; 10 were poorly located, but im- 
provements in the protection from surface wash and infiltration would make 
them safe; 25 were bad only because of poor surface protection and could 
easily be made safe. Practically all the surface supplies investigated were 
polluted. During these investigations 23 of the farms examined showed a 
record of typhoid fever. 

F. T. Shutt, of the Canada Experimental Farms at Ottawa, reviewing 
his study of the subject since 1887, states, that of the farm water supplies 
examined, 30 percent may be classified as safe and wholesome, 25 percent as 
suspicious and probably contaminated, 36 percent as seriously polluted, and 
9 percent as undrinkable through a high percent of alkali. 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



107 



SURFACE SUPPLIES. 

Contamination. — Surface water supplies are those most liable to pollu- 
tion, and authorities agree that they are the most unsatisfactory for farm 
use. Streams and ponds receive the greater part of the surface wash from 
the immediate neighborhood, and in many cases barnyard or stockyard drain- 
age from points remote from where the water is taken for household use. 
Streams or ponds located in pastures, manured fields, or where stock can gain 
access to them are polluted. Sometimes sewage and house drainage are 
emptied into streams and ponds. In fact, since they are open and unprotected, 
there are a thousand and one different sources of pollution for such supplies. 
Rain waters from the roof are polluted by dust, dirt, and leaves which collect 
in the eaves trough, and by the droppings from' birds. 

Surface water supplies should therefore not be used for household pur- 
poses, not even for washing milk cans or for laundry purposes, unless no 
other supply is available. And it may be safely assumed that the person 






i-QOSC 1//WI/VG Of 
0R/Cff Off sro/vs 




Fig. 2. i -Crib of brick or stone for intake from pond, 



who drinks water from surface supplies endangers his health if such supplies 
are not first protected from the sources of contamination as far as possible 
and then purified. 

Cisterns. — In localities where underground waters are hard to obtain, 
cisterns may be used for the filtration, partial purification, and storage of rain 
water, and surface supplies. The size of the cistern will depend on the number of 
persons in the house and on the general water consumption, as discussed here- 
after, under "Pumping, Storage, and Distribution." 

The cistern should be of water-tight construction, to prevent leakage and to 
prevent pollution from the neighboring soil. It should have an overflow drain 
and a tight cover. There should also be suitable provision for straining or filter- 
ing the water previous to its entrance into the cistern. 

The cistern should ordinarily be in two compartments. Build a filter wall of 
porous brick between them. One compartment serves as a settling chamber and 
the water receives a final filtration before entering the storage compartment. 



108 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Concrete is probably the most sanitary and durable material for cisterns. 
See chapter on concrete for details of cistern construction. 

If water is piped from a stream or pond subject to pollution, the pipe en- 
trance should be placed in a crib and screened, as shown in Figure 2. The pipe 
can then empty into a receiving filter, made of concrete, which contains fine sand, 
gravel, and powdered charcoal in layers (Fig. 3), and from which it empties 
into the cistern. The rain-water pipe from the eaves trough should be provided 
with a switch or cut-off, so that the flow may be diverted to the outside — as, for 
instance, for a short time at the beginning of rains — to exclude the filth collected 
on the roof and gutters. An overflow pipe should be provided in the side of 
the cistern and should be screened to exclude rats and other vermin. 




r 1 j 1 

1 it. 



33! 



1 



LQNCITUDINAL SECTION. 



TOP V/EW 



Fig. 3.— Cistern SJter of concrete and stone. 



The above treatment will, in a large measure, purify surface water for 
household uses other than drinking or cooking; but if this water is to be used for 
these purposes it should first be boiled. 

Distilled Water. — Sometimes a simple still can be conveniently used on 
a kitchen range to provide distilled water for drinking purposes. Saline (alkali) 
waters are satisfactorily treated in this way. Figure 4 illustrates a form of still 
which has been found effective and convenient for household use. It has the 
advantage of being inexpensive and can be made by any tinner. The still con- 
sists essentially of a water boiler (A) on the range, having a capacity of about 
13^2 to 2 gallons, and a condenser suspended at the proper height from the ceil- 
ing. The pipe (B) conveys steam to the condensing chamber (C) and is kept 
cool by water in the compartment (D). The distilled water collects in (E) and 
can be drawn off from time to time or allowed to run continuously into the bucket 
(F). The metal used in the construction of the still should be well-tinned cop- 
per and no solder should be exposed to the action of either the steam or the dis- 
tilled water. 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 109 

UNDERGROUND WATER SUPPLIES. 

Contamination. — It is usual to distinguish between shallow underground 
supplies and deep underground supplies. Wells from 15 to 30 feet in depth, to 
water flowing in a layer of gravel or sand, which rests on an impervious or extra 
hard stratum, are considered as sources of shallow underground supply. 

Both shallow and deep farm wells are often polluted from local sources. 
They are often located for convenience in the barnyard, under the barn or stable, 




FlQ. 4.— Water still for household use. 

close to stock pens, privy vaults, or leaching cesspools, or close to the back door, 
out of which household slops are thrown and near which animal and vegetable 
refuse is often allowed to accumulate and decompose. The soil surrounding the 
well becomes saturated with organic filth. Unable finally to perform its useful 
work of filtration and purification, the soil allows the surface water percolating 
through it to carry contamination into the well. 



110 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

The curbing or covering is often loosely constructed of boards, permitting 
small animals and vermin to fall into the well ; surface water carrying filth and 
manure, especially after rains, runs into the well from the top. 

The well may be located at such a distance from sources of contamination 
that ordinary pumping will bring no bad results, but in case of unusually heavy 
pumping the underground water surface for a distance around the well may be 
sufficiently lowered to reach the zone of contamination. This principle is il- 
lustrated in figure 5. 

Deep bored or driven wells are less liable to pollution than those which are 
shallow dug or bored. In the first case, the wells are usually solidly cased ; the sur- 
face water must filter through a depth of soil equal to the depth of the well before 
gaining access to it. In the second case, the wells are usually loosely lined with 
brick or stone, and the surface water, having only a short distance to filter, seeps 
through the entire depth. 

That both deep and shallow wells are subject to contamination is shown from 
many examinations which have been made. Of 177 deep and 411 shallow farm 




Fig. 5.— Effect of pumping on ground water. 



wells examined in Indiana, 116 of the deep well waters were of good quality, 45 
were bad, and 16 were doubtful; 159 of the shallow well waters were good, 209 
were very bad, and 43 were doubtful. 

The safety of water supplies when near sources of possible surface pollution 
often depends largely on the character and quality of the material in which the 
well is sunk. Surface waters in sinking through sandy soils are filtered, and in the 
finer sands much of the polluting matter which they carry is frequently removed. 
In coarser sands or gravel the degree of filtration is less, but water taken from 
sands and gravels at a considerable depth may be considered relatively safe. 
Waters from wells in clay are not often polluted, since surface pollution filters 
through clay very slowly. 

Waters from wells in limestone are frequently polluted, owing to the fact that 
limestone soils usually contain passages and channels at different depths. These 
sometimes form a continuous passage of underground water for a considerable 
distance. They are often directly connected with sinks and basins occurring on 
the surface. It is a common practice to dump manure, trash, and garbage into 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



111 



such sinks or basins, and rain water falling into these plunges directly into the 
underground channels, carrying with it the impurities from the basin to those 
points where wells are sunk. In this manner garbage or refuse dumped anywhere 
in the neighborhood of, or even at a considerable distance from, a well in limestone 
may pollute the water. Figure 6 shows how the pollution of wells and springs 
may occur in limestone. 

Deep wells in granite or jointed rock are often polluted, although cased to 
a great depth, since polluted water may sink in a zigzag course along the rock 
joints until it reaches the bottom of the well casing. It is therefore necessary to 
exercise care in the location of the well and in the preliminary protection from 
pollution. 

Well-Location and Preliminary Protection. — The farm well, especially 
a shallow dug well, should be located somewhat above the barns, buildings, yards, 
and stock pens, or at least in such a position that the surface drainage from all 



SPGING-* 




Fig. 6.— Pollution of subsurface water in limestone. 



possible sources of animal and vegetable contamination is away from the well. 
The location should also be as far removed from these sources as convenience will 
permit. 

To properly safeguard wells against outside contamination, first, all sources 
of contamination should be removed as far as possible. If local conditions and 
prices will permit, it is a good idea to provide impenetrable floors with water- 
tight drains for farm buildings and stock pens. Under the same conditions con- 
crete manure pits might well be provided to not only prevent the liquid manure 
from polluting the neighboring soil but to save the manure. No garbage, manure, 
or rubbish should be dumped into sinks or basins in the immediate neighborhood 
and these should be fenced off and kept free from polluting matter. The house 
should be provided with some safe method of sewage disposal, while slops and 
garbage from the kitchen should be deposited in tightly covered garbage cans 
and disposed of by burying in the fields, burning, or feeding to pigs before it is de- 
composed. The use of privy vaults and leaching or overflowing cesspools should 
be absolutely avoided, since they are likely to be sources of the worst contamination. 
Second, the farmer should become acquainted with the various types of wells and 
the best methods of protection, and the well should be so protected as to exclude 



112 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



filth from those sources of contamination which it has been impossible to remove 
or which have been overlooked. 

Type of Wells and Methods of Sinking. — In the selection, location, and 
sinking of a well it is always a good idea to consider permanence in addition to 
safety. This will depend on the kind of well used, and one should be acquainted 
with well types and methods of sinking. The well should penetrate to levels below 
that of the ground-water surface in the driest seasons. 

Figure 7 illustrates four different common types of deep and shallow wells. 
No. 1 shows a dug well, with pump, which may be lined with either concrete or 
cemented brick. No. 2 shows a driven well, which is constructed by attaching a 




2 3 

Fig. 7.— Types of deep and shallow wells. 



point on the end of the pipe and driving the pipe into the ground until water is 
reached. The point is provided with a short length of pipe with perforations 
which permit the water to enter the pipe and keeps out the sand and gravel. This 
arrangement is best suited to shallow wells, as the cylinder is near the surface in 
a dry well. If the depth to water is greater than the suction limit, it is necessary 
to dig a dry well deep enough to place the cylinder within the suction limit. Nos. 
3 and 4 are drilled wells consisting of a small hole which may be from 3 inches to 
15 inches in diameter. This hole is lined with an impenetrable iron casing which 
prevents caving in and keeps out all water, except that which enters at the bottom. 
This type of well can pass through as many water-bearing beds as desired and 
none but that from the lowest will enter. The. casing is large enough to allow the 
cylinder to be placed below the water surface, or as near the water as is necessary. 
No. 4 shows a drilled well with a dry well installed above it to accommodate the 
lower half of a pump made for underground discharge. 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



113 



M. L. Fuller states in regard to types of shallow wells and conditions to which 
they are adapted : "Dug wells are generally circular excavations 3 to 6 feet in 
diameter. They are adapted to localities where the water is near the surface, es- 
pecially where it occurs in small seeps in clayey materials, and requires extensive 
storage space for its conservation. Bored wells are wells bored with various types 
of augurs from 2 inches to 3 feet in diameter rotated or lifted by hand or horse- 
power. They are usually lined with cement or tile sections with cemented joints 
and often with iron tubing. They are adapted to localities where the water is at 
slight or medium depth and to materials similar to those in which open wells are 
sunk. Punched wells are small holes usually less than 6 inches in diameter sunk 
by hand or horsepower by dropping a steel cylindei slit at the side so as to haul 




FOUNPATtON 
STRATUM 



Fig. 8. — Concrete well lining, showing arrangement of forms. 



and lift material by its spring. They are adapted to clayey material in which water 
occurs as seeps within 50 feet of the surface, but not at much greater depths. 
These wells should also be lined with tile, iron tubing, or sheet-iron casing. 
Driven wells are sunk by driving downward, by hand or horsepower apparatus, 
small iron tubes, usually V/^ to 4 inches in diameter, and provided with point and 
screen. They are adapted to soft and fine materials, especially to sand and others 
similarly porous ; which carry considerable water at relatively slight depths, and 
are particularly desirable where the upper soil is likely to be polluted." 

Since most well-water supplies are obtained from sand and fine gravels, the 
cheapest and best method of well sinking is by driving. In a driven well the water 
can only be polluted at the depth of the strainer. In some materials, such as clay, 
it is necessary to bore the well, in which case it is absolutely necessary for safety 



114 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



that the well be lined with impenetrable casing to the strainer. Deep and shallow 
dug wells should also be lined. 

Protective Well Linings. — For lining shallow dug wells the latest prac- 
tice has been to use re-enforced concrete. This has also been successfully prac- 
ticed in lining deep dug wells. Concrete may be made practically impenetrable to 
water, so that a concrete lined shallow or deep dug well can only be polluted from 
the bottom. 

Figure 8 suggests a method of lining dug wells with concrete. Dug wells are 
usually about 6 feet in diameter. The concrete need be only about 6 inches with 
vertical steel re-enforcing of j^-inch rods spaced 18 inches apart, and circular 
re-enforcing of ^-inch steel rods spaced about 9 inches. The two sets should 
be bound together by steel wire with the circular re-enforcing placed inside the 
vertical. A carefully proportioned concrete mixture of 1 
part cement and 2 parts sand to 4 parts of gravel or crushed 
rock should be used. A circular collapsible form is neces- 
sary, with diameter 12 inches less than the diameter of the 
well and about 5 feet long. The two rings, A and B, are 
cut to a diameter equal to that of the shaft, less twice the 
thickness of the concrete and 4 inches for the 2-inch lining 
boards. The rings are made by drawing a circle the size 
of the frame and laying boards around its circumference. 
The boards are then lightly tacked together and a circle of 
the same radius marked on three ends. Finally, around the 
circumference of the ring are fastened boards, each 2 inches 
thick and of the required length of the form. The concrete 
lining rests on the bottom of the well, which has been pre- 
viously level to receive it. A wet mixture is advisable for 
this class of work. The form should be left in until the 
concrete has properly set, before it is raised to construct the 
next section. 

In regard to other types of well lining or casing M. L. 
Fuller says: "Cemented rock or brick linings protect the 
well from pollution, except at the bottom, as long as the 
walls are not cracked. They also prevent the entrance of 
sediments and animals and do not impart a taste to the 
water. Iron casings are used in both rock and uncon- 
solidated materials. They are usually used in deep wells. 
They may be either iron tubing 1 to 4 inches in diameter, 
or sheet-iron casings 4 to 16 inches in diameter, with snug 
joints. They are adapted to wells of all depths in which 
water is obtained from a stratum below the casing or from 
a stratum between cased sections, or in case it is decided 
to procure water from a number of strata." 
Fio. 9.-iron well Iron casings may be obtained from manufacturers of 

md^cjtadwta! pmnping apparatus or from hardware dealers. Figure 9 
side. shows a type of iron casing with pump inside. 





WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



115 



Protective Well Curbings or Coverings. — Both shallow and deep wells 
should have water-tight curbs, in addition to air-tight casings. The drip from 
the pump is often the cause of serious pollution. The casing or lining should 
extend 6 or 8 inches above the ground surface except when a dry well is used, 
and a concrete curbing should be built over the top, with a slope away from the 
pump opening in the center. This cover should extend at least 2 feet beyond the 




Fig. 10.— Well protection. 

edge if it is a dug well, and if a bored or driven well the cover should extend 4 
to 6 feet in all directions from the center. The outer edge should be raised to 
form a trough emptying into a tight drain ; or a drain trough should be provided 
to catch the drip. E. Bartow suggests that the earth be excavated for 4 feet outside 
of the regular casing to a depth of 4 feet. That an extra 4-inch coating of water- 
proof Portland cement mortar be placed outside this casing with 4 to 6 inches of 
mortar in the bottom of the excavation. This bottom should have a raised portion 
at its outer edge to divert' the seepage water to a tile drain. This arrangement 



-C(xv£^rrr *rsr/?ro//? 




Fig. 11. — Method of walling in springs. 



prevents surface water that has not been filtered through at least 4 feet of earth 
from gaining access to the well. Figure 10 shows a combination of these pro- 
tective arrangements. 

Springs. — Springs are good sources of water supply, since they usually 
come from great depths within rock or are filtered through many layers of sand 
and gravel. However, they are subject to pollution from the same sources as 
wells and should be closely watched in this respect. Farm spring supplies are 



116 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



often polluted by the drainage from buildings and stock pens. Spring water sup- 
plies from limestone are also subject to pollution from distant garbage and sew- 
age dumps in sink holes as shown in figure 6. The same precautions should be 
taken for safeguarding spring supplies as in the case of wells. The spring should 
always be fenced to keep out stock. It should be cleaned of all trash and walled 

in to form a kind of reservoir, as 
shown in figure 11. The water may 
then be conducted to the house by 
gravity or by means of a hydraulic 
ram. Where a spring is small a 
large vitrified tile may be so placed 
as to form a small storage reservoir. 
This reservoir should be covered 
and protected as much as possible 
from filth and vermin. After rains 
the spring should be noticed for any 
signs of turbidity which may indi- 
cate pollution from distant surface 
sources. Spring supplies should be 
frequently examined for pollution 
of any kind. 

Pumping, Storage, and Distribution 
of Water. 

After a pure water supply is 
made available the first things to 
be considered are the quantity of 
water needed, choice of pumping 
equipment, and means of storage 
and distribution. 

Quantity of Water Needed. — 
The quantity of water needed de- 
pends on the power used and 
whether the service is for the entire 
farm or for the house only. Hand- 
operated systems are applicable 
where small quantities are required 
for house service. Where water is 
wanted for stock the use of a 
windmill, engine, electric motor, or hydraulic ram is necessary. If a windmill 
is used the storage should be large enough for at least three days' supply, to 
provide water in case of calm weather. Where the other sources of power are 
used the storage capacity need not exceed one day's supply. The following 
table gives approximate quantities of water required per day: 




Fig. 12.— Gravity supply system with storage tank In attic. 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



117 



Approximate Quantities of Water Required Per Day. 

Gallons 
Each member of the family for all purposes will require. .25-40 

Each cow will require 12 

Each horse will require 10 

Each hog will require 2]/ 2 

Each sheep will require 2 

The water consumption will vary from day to day and with the seasons. 
Fire protection should also be considered, and in determining the size of tank the 
maximum likely to be required should be provided. 

For a family of 6 persons a 200-gallon supply should be sufficient if the water 
is used in the house only. On a farm 
where water is supplied to a family of 
6 persons, 10 horses, 12 cows, 25 hogs, 
and 15 sheep, the daily storage supply 
should be at least 500 gallons, with 
whatever additional amount, if any, the 
farmer deems necessary for fire protec- 
tion. 

There are three general systems of 
storage and distribution which may be 
readily applied to farm conditions, viz., 
the gravity, pneumatic, and auto- 
pneumatic systems. 

The Gravity System. — In the grav- 
ity system water is forced into an 
elevated tank placed higher than the 
highest discharge cock. A storage 
tank may be placed in the attic, on the 
roof, or on a tower outside. The agri- 
cultural experiment station at Ames, 
Iowa, has designed a silo with the 
storage tank placed on top. Figure 12 
shows a gravity system with the stor- 
age tank in the attic and figure 13 
shows the storage tank placed on the 
windmill tower. 

Since there is considerable fric- 
tional resistance to the flow of water 
through the distribution pipes, the tank 
should be placed at least 10 feet higher 
than the highest discharge cock to in- 
sure a flow under pressure. 

,, r , . . „~ - , Fie. 13.— Gravity supply system with storage tank on 

Water weighs 62.5 pounds per windmin tower 




* V../*?o-S£„ 



118 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



cubic foot, or about 8.4 pounds per gallon, so that in placing a tank in the 
attic or on the roof the supports should be made sufficiently strong to uphold 
this weight. 

Either wooden or galvanized tanks may be used. Wooden tanks may be ob- 
tained, of almost any size, either circular or rectangular in shape. They are gen- 
erally built of cedar or cypress, and are slightly conical. They are usually knocked 
down when shipped, and should be set up and filled with water as soon as received. 
The foundation should be good and solid and the weight of the tank should rest 
on the tank bottom and not on that part of the stave which projects below. The 
capacities of circular tanks may be found by the following: Capacity in gallons 




=*g=srt 




— TO 
PLUMBIN9 
SYSTEM 



ppaPg^^^fii^KPiPl^? 



Fia 15 —Pneumatic tank supply system with tank in basement supplied by windmill deep-well 

pumping outfit. 



equals diameter in feet, squared, multiplied by 0.7854, multiplied by the depth in 
feet, multiplied by 7.48. One cubic foot equals 7.48 gallons. When located in 
buildings wooden tanks are commonly made rectangular. They may be lined with 
tinned copper, but never with lead. To obviate the use of heavy planking, rods 
are used to rigidly tie together the end and side braces. 

Steel tanks may be purchased in circular, round end, oblong, and rectangular 
shapes. Commercial sizes of these tanks are given on next page. 

The Pneumatic Tank System. — The pneumatic tank system consists of 
a force pump, an air-tight steel tank, necessary pipe, valves, fittings, etc., and power 
for operating the pump. The system may be a small one operated by hand, wind- 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



119 



Round storage tank*. 



Diameter. 


Height 


Capacity. 


Diameter. 


Height. 


Capacity. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Gallons. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Gallons. 


3 


2 


106 


5 


3 


440 




2 


189 


5 


4 


588 




2* 


235 


5 


5 


735 




3 


283 


5 


6 


880 




4 


378 


5J 


8 


1,400 




5 


470 


6 


2 


423 




6 


567 


6 


2* 


528 




8 


756 


6 


3 


635 


5 


2 


299 


6 


4 


845 


5 


2'. 


368 


6 


5 


1,056 



Round end storage tanks. 



Width. 


Height. 


Length. 


Capacity. 


Width. 


Height. 


Length. 


Capacity. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Fed. 


Gallons. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feel. 


Gallons. 


2 


2 


4 


118 




2 


14 


820 


2 


2 


5 


150 




2 


16 


945 


2 


2 


6 


181 




2§ 


8 


536 


2 


2 


7 


202 




2J 


10 


756 


2 


2 


8 


236 




2* 


16 


1,200 


2 


2 


10 


299 




3 


8 


725 


2 


24 


8 


299 




3 


10 


915 


24 


2 


8 


299 




5 


10 


1,480 


24 


2 


10 


378 


5 


2 


16 


1,200 


2* 


24 


8 


378 


5 


2J 


16 


1,480 


3 


2 


8 


362 


6 


2 


8 


740 


3 


2 


10 


440 


6 


2 


10 


900 


3 


2J 


8 


440 


6 


2 


16 


1,420 


3 


2j 


10 


567 


6 


24 


8 


900 


3 


3 


10 


662 


6 


2i 


10 


1,120 


4 


2 


8 


473 


6 


3 


10 


1,340 


4 


2 


10 


598 


6 


4 


10 


1.760 


4 


2 


, 12 


693 


6 


5 


10 


2,200 



Tanks 4 feet long, 1 top brace; 5, 6, and 7 feet, 1 side and 1 top brace: 8 
feet, 2 side and 1 top brace; 10 feet, 3 side and 2 top braces; 16 feet, 5 side 
and 3 top braces. 

Square end storage tanks. 



Width. 


Height. 


Length. 


Capacity. 


Width. 


Height. 


Length. 


Capacity. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Gallons. 


Feel. 


Feet. 


Feel. 


Gallons. 


2 


2 


4 


118 


3 


2 


10 


448 


2 


2 


5 


150 


3 


2i 


8 


448 


2 


2 


6 


181 


3 


24 


10 


565 


2 


2 


7 


210 


3 


3 


10 


673 


2 


2 


8 


240 




2 


8- 


478 


2 


2J 


8 


299 




2 


10 


598 


2i 


2 


8 


299 




24 


8 


598 


2i 


2J 


8 


378 




24 


10 


748 


3 


2 


8 


360 




3 


8 


718 



Tanks 4, 5, and 6 feet long, 1 side and 1 top brace; 7 and 8 feet, 2 side. 1 
top brace; 10 feet, 3 side, 2 top braces; longer and deeper tanks are extra 
well braced. 



120 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



mill, or small engine; or it may consist of a large pump operated by a powerful 
engine with two or more tanks of large capacity. The tank may be placed in the 
basement or underground, thus keeping the water cool and preventing freezing. 
Figure 14 shows a pneumatic system with the tank in the basement and supplied 
by a hand force pump. This figure also well illustrates the water plumbing. 
Figure 15 shows the tank in the basement supplied by a windmill deep-well pump- 
ing outfit. The tank may be set in the ground below the frost line close to the 
well or house foundation. 

In the operation of the pneumatic system water is forced into.the air-tight 
tank ; this compresses the air into a smaller space and creates an air pressure 
which forces the water to the discharge cocks. In determining the capacity of the 
tank, it is necessary that about one-third of the computed storage capacity be added 
to provide space for the compressed air. For commercial sizes of pneumatic 
tanks see next page. 

Each tank is equipped with a pressure gauge which will show the internal 
pressure at any time. If the water is pumped into the tank until the pressure 
gauge registers 25 pounds, water can be forced about 60 feet above the tank. 
If a discharge cock 20 feet above the tank is opened, water is discharged until 
the- pressure falls to 8.6 pounds; it is then insufficient to deliver the remaining 
water 20 feet high. It will also be found that when air is compressed in the same 
tank with water, the water gradually absorbs the air, thus making constant re- 
newal of the air necessary. Both of the above troubles are overcome by com- 
pressing excess air in with the water until the pressure gauge again registers 25 
pounds, if the tank is half full of water. Excess air pressure may be secured by 
an air intake valve in the suction pipe. This may be controlled by hand, by a 
combination of air and water pump, or by use of an air compressor when power is 
used. 

The following table gives the pressure in the tank necessary to force water 
to certain heights in the house : 

FEET HEAD OF WATER AND EQUIVALENT PRESSURE IN TANK 



Elevation 


Pressure 


Elevation 


Pressure 


Elevation 


Pressure 




in tank 




in tank 




in tank 


Feet 


Pounds 


Feet 


Pounds 


Feet 


Pounds 


1 


0.43 


20 


8.66 


75 


32.48 


2 


.87 


25 


10.83 


80 


34.65 


3 


1.30 


30 


12.99 


85 


36.81 


4 


1.73 


35 


15.16 


90 


38.98 


5 


2.17 


40 


17.32 


95 


41.14 


6 


2.60 


45 


19.49 


100 


43.31 


7 


3.03 


50 


21.55 


110 


47.64 


8 


3.40 


55 


23.82 


120 


51.97 


9 


3.90 


60 


25.99 


130 


56.30 


10 


4.33 


65 


28.15 


140 


60.03 


15 


6.50 


70 


30.32 


150 


64.96 



Pipe friction should be included in computing the pumping height, as dis- 
cussed under "Pumping." 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



121 







Commercial sizes c 


/pneumatic tanks. 




Diame- 
ter. 


Length. 


Weight. 


Capacity. 


Diame- 
ter. 


Length. 


Weight. 


Capacity. 


Inches. 
24 
24 
24 
30 
30 
30 
30 
36 
36 
36 
36 
42 


Feet. 

6 

8 
10 

6 

8 
10 
12 

6 

8 
10 
12 

8 


Pounds. 

445 

560 

675 

560 

700 

870 

900 

750 

900 

1,050 

1,200 

1,450 


Gallons. 
140 
195 
245 
220 
295 
365 
440 
315 
420 
525 
C30 
575 


Inches. 
42 
42 
42 
42 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
60 


Feet. 
10 
12 
14 
16 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
24 
20 


Pounds. 
1,650 

. 1,900 
2,200 
2,400 
2,066 
2,320 
2,610 
2,900 
3,600 
3,950 
4,650 
5,900 


Gallons. 
720 
865 
1,000 
1,150 
1,000 
1,130 
1,300 
1,500 
1,700 
1,880 
2,200 
2,940 




Fig. 14,-Pneumatic tank supply system with tank in basement supplied by hand force pump. 



122 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



The Autopneumatic System. — In the autopneumatic system the water 
is delivered fresh from the well to the faucets. This system consists essentially 
of an air compressor driven by a small gas engine or electric motor, an air-tight 
steel air-pressure tank, and one or more autopneumatic pumps. No water tank 
is required, since nothing is stored but compressed air. The pump consists of 
two small metallic chambers submerged in the water. 

When a faucet is opened they automatically fill and discharge, owing to the 
air pressure from the storage tank. This gives a continuous flow of fresh water. 



<xoseo 




Fig. 1C— Principle of operation of an autopneumatic pump. 



Figure 16 illustrates the principle of operation of the pump. Suppose a small 
air-tight tank A with inlet valve is submerged in water and allowed to fill. A 
discharge pipe B is connected at the bottom leading upward to faucet K. Com- 
pressed air is forced through pipe C into the top of the tank so that the water is 
forced out through the discharge pipe until the tank is emptied of water. A 
similar tank D is connected as shown. The pump has a device for automatically 
opening and closing the air valves and exhaust valves to the tanks alternately. 
While A is emptying of water D is filling, and they discharge alternately. 

Figure 17A gives a front and side view of an autopneumatic pump. Figure 
17B shows the entire working parts of a system and also how the pump may be used 
in bored and cased wells. 

Each pump requires an air-pressure reducer, shut-off and release cocks, pres- 
sure gauge, etc. The air-pressure reducer is necessary to reduce the high pressure 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



123 



Pff£SSU/?f fi£0OC£# 







Fig. 17.— Working parts of an autopneumatic pumping system: A, Front and side view: B, entire working' 
system as used in bored or cased wells. 



124 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



carried in the tank to the uniform low pressure required to operate the pump. It 
is placed in the air-pipe line between the air tank and the pneumatic pump. It can 
be adjusted to the proper pressure with an ordinary wrench. The proper working 
pressure required to operate the pump and raise water to the required height in 
the building is recorded on the pump gauge placed on the air-pipe line between 
the reducer and the pump. The following table shows the number of gallons of 
water that can be drawn from faucets with the pump under working pressures 
varying from 25 to 65 pounds and total starting pressures in a 1,000-gallon air 
tank varying from 40 to 100 pounds : 

Pumping capacity of a 1 ,000-gallon air lank, in gallons, under varying internal pressures. 



Work- 
pressure 
on pump 

guage. 


Total pressure in air tank at start. 


4C pounds. 


50 pounds. 


60 pounds. 


70 pounds. 


80 pounds. 


90 pounds. 


100 pounds. 


Pounds. 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
55 
60 
05 


Gallons. 

375 
221 
102 


Gillons. 
259 
442 
306 
18} 
85 


Gallons. 
833 
663 
510 
374 
255 
153 
68 


Gallons. 
1,075 
884 
714 
561 
425 
306 
204 
119 
51 


Gallons. 
1,310 
1,105 
924 
748 
596 
460 
330 
237 
153 


Gallons. 

1,548 

1,326 

1,123 

938 

',65 

612 

476 

375 

255 


Gallons. 

1,786 

1,543 

1,327 

1,123 

936 

565 

612 

476 

357 
























AUTOPHCUMATIC PMP 



Fir,. 18.— Application of autopneum.it ic sysicra to a IVirm home. 

For air tanks of other than 1,000-gallon capacity divide the figures in the 
table by 1,000, move the decimal point three places to the left, and multiply the 
result by the capacity of the tank in gallons. 

Assume, for example, that the height to which the water is to be raised and 
the pressure required to operate the pump, including friction, make necessary a 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



125 




Fig. 19.— Force pump with cylinder submerged in shallow well. 



126 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



working pressure of 40 pounds on the pump. Then if the initial pressure in the 
air tank is 50 pounds, 187 gallons of water can be delivered at the faucets before the 
pressure in the air tank becomes too low to operate the pump. 

The autopneumatic pump can be used in wells, springs, or lakes where the 
water is free from sand and mud and does not have to be lifted more than 100 feet, 
or where the working pressure on the pump does not exceed 65 pounds. 

Figure 18 illustrates the application of this system to a farm home. 

Pumping. — The water level in shallow wells is usually near enough to 
the surface to be within the limits of suction. The limiting practical suction lift 
for a pump is about 20 feet, although it will vary with the elevation above sea level. 
This means that the pump cylinder which raises the water by suction in lift pumps 
and which raises by suction and also forces the water in force pumps should not 
be more than 20 feet above the water level in the well. To practically eliminate 
suction lift, the cylinder may be submerged as shown in figure 19, thus making the 
cylinder and pump frame separate and connected only by a section of pipe. This 
prevents the valves from drying out and makes the pump self-priming. Force 
pumps often have two cylinders, and in deep wells it is necessary that the lower 
or suction cylinder be either submerged or within 15 feet of the water level. In 
the figure shown the forcing cylinder is within the suction cylinder. The suction 
of any type of pump must be air-tight. 

To find the approximate discharge at each stroke of a pump in gallons use 
the following table : 

TABLE OF CAPACITY OF PUMPS 











Length of stroke in inches 








Diameter 






















of cylin- 
der in 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


14 


15 


16 


inches 








Capacit 


7 per str 


Dke in ga 


lions 








1 


0.017 


0.020 


0.024 


0.027 


0.031 


0.034 


0.041 


0.048 


0.051 


0.054 


1H 


.022 


.026 


.030 


.034 


.039 


.043 


.052 


.060 


0.65 


.069 


IH 


.027 


.032 


0.37 


.043 


.048 


.053 


.064 


.074 


.079 


.085 


W* 


.032 


.039 


.044 


.051 


.058 


.064 


.077 


.089 


.096 


.103 


1H 


.038 


.046 


.054 


.061 


.069 


.077 


.092 


.107 


.115 


.122 


1% 


.052 


.063 


.073 


.083 


.094 


.104 


.125 


.146 


.156 


.170 


2 


.068 


.082 


.095 


.109 


.122 


.136 


.163 


.190 


.204 


.218 


2% 


.086 


.103 


.121 


.138 


.155 


.172 


.206 


.241 


.258 


.275 


Wi 


.106 


.128 


.149 


.170 


.191 


.213 


.255 


.298 


.319 


.340 


2M 


.129 


.154 


.180 


.206 


.231 


.257 


.309 


.360 


.386 


.411 


3 


.153 


.184 


.214 


.245 


.275 


.306 


.367 


.428 


.459 


.489 


314 


.179 


.215 


.251 


.287 


.323 


.359 


.431 


.503 


.539 


.575 


3^ 


.208 


.249 


.292 


.333 


.375 


.417 


.499 


.583 


.625 


.666 


3% 


.239 


.287 


.335 


.382 


.430 


.478 


.574 


.669 


.717 


.765 


4 


.272 


.326 


.381 


.435 


.490 


.544 


.653 


.762 


.816 


.870 


4H 


.307 


.368 


.429 


.491 


.553 


.614 


.737 


.860 


.921 


.982 


VA 


.344 


.413 


.482 


.551 


.619 


.689 


.826 


.964 


1.033 


1.102 


4M 


.384 


.460 


.537 


.614 


.690 


.767 


.920 


1.073 


1.150 


1.227 


5 


.425 


.510 


.595 


.680 


.765 


.850 


1.020 


1.190 


1.275 


1.360 


5H 


.469 


.562 


.656 


.750 


.843 


.937 


1.124 


1.311 


1.405 


1.499 


5H 


.514 


.617 


.720 


.823 


.926 


1.029 


1.234 


1.440 


1.543 


1.646 


5M 


.562 


.674 


.787 


.899 


1.011 


1.124 


1.348 


1.573 


1.686 


1.798 


6 


.612 


.734 


.857 


.979 


1.102 


1.224 


1.469 


1.714 


1.836 


1.958 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



127 



The discharge per stroke as shown by the above table may be multiplied by 
the number of strokes per minute to find the discharge in gallons per minute. 

The power required for pumping will depend on the number of gallons per 
minute one wishes to pump and the total lift. 

The total lift is the vertical distance from the surface of the water in the well 
to the highest faucet or to the storage tank plus the friction loss in the pipes. If 
the length of the distribution pipe is over 100 feet the loss by frictional resistance 
in feet of lift should be determined and included in the total lift. The following 
table gives the frictional loss in feet of lift per 100 feet in pipes from ^ to 4 
inches in diameter, discharging from 5 to 40 gallons per minute. 

FRACTIONAL LOSS IN FEET FOR 100 FEET CLEAN IRON PIPES » 



Gallons 




















per 
minute 


S A 


1 


1M 


\y% 


2 


Wt. 


3 


sy 2 


4 


inch 


inch 


inches 


inches 


inches 


inches 


inches 


inches 


inches 


5 


7.6 
29.9 


1.9 
7.3 


0.71 
1.4 


0.27 
1.0 


0.09 

.28 


0.05 
.09 


0.01 
.05 






10 


6.01 




15 


66.0 


16.1 


5.5 


2.2 


.57 


.18 


.09 


.05 


0.02 


20 


115.0 


28.0 


9.5 


4.8 


.96 


.32 


.13 


.07 


.03 


25 


179.0 


43.7 


14.7 


6.0 


1.7 


.48 


.23 


.09 


.05 


30 


264.0 


63.2 


21.0 


8.6 


2.1 


.69 


.30 


.14 


.07 


35 


372.0 


85.1 


28.9 


11.6 


2.7 


.92 


.39 


.20 


.11 


40 


461.0 


110.0 


37.0 


14.9 


3.7 


1.2 


.53 


.25 


.14 



Ellis and Howland's experiments. 

Water weighs 62.5 pounds per cubic foot and there are 7.48 gallons in a cubic 
foot. Divide the number of gallons pumped per minute by 7.48 to get the cubic 
feet pumped per minute. Multiply the cubic feet by 62.5 pounds to get the weight 
of water pumped per minute. Multiply the weight by the total lift, which will give 
the foot-pounds of work per minute ; 33,000 foot-pounds per minute equal 1 
horsepower. Divide the foot-pounds per minute by 33,000 and the result will be 
horsepower. The horsepower as computed from the quantity pumped per minute 
and the total lift should be doubled, as a pumping outfit usually has an efficiency of 
about 50 per cent. In general, from 1 to 3 horsepower is all that is required for 
ordinary farm pumping. In cases where water for the house only is wanted, y 2 
to Y\ of a horsepower is sufficient. 

Types of Pumps.— There are several types of pumps which may be used 
in farm pumping. The most common are the ordinary lift pumps which simply 
raise the water to the ground surface from a shallow well. For elevated tank sys- 
tems and pneumatic tank systems the combination lift and force pump is necessary. 
If a special air pump or compressor is not employed it is necessary that a combina- 
tion air and water pump be used for pneumatic tanks, especially in pumping from 
deep wells. 

There are many types of hand force pumps for shallow and deep well pumping 
which may be applied to either elevated tank or pneumatic tank systems. 

Figure 15 shows a deep-well windmill pumping outfit applied to a pneumatic 
tank system, and figure 13 shows a shallow well windmill pumping outfit supply- 



128 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



ing water to a tank on the windmill tower. Figure 20 is a pumping jack which 
may be connected with a deep or shallow well pumping outfit applied to either sys- 
tem. This jack may be operated by gas engine or electric motor. Figure 21 
shows two other types of windmill force pumps, A for shallow wells, and B for 
deep wells. 

In obtaining information from the manufacturers of pumping equipment as 
to the particular equipment which will suit certain needs, the power required, 





Frt;. 20.— Pumping jack for either 
deep or shallow well pumping. 



Fie. 21 -Two types of windmill force pump: A, For shallow wells 
B, for deep wells. 



etc., it is well to send data on the following: The source of water supply, whether 
a well, spring, or surface supply; inside diameter and total depth of the well; 
the distance from the ground surface to the water level in the well ; the flow of 
the well ; the number of gallons to be pumped per hour ; the relative positions of 
the water supply and the point to which the water is to be forced ; the position in 
which the pump is to be placed ; one's preference as to pneumatic tank, elevated 
tank, or autopneumatic system ; the kind of power to be used, and whether or 
not power is already available, such as electric motors, windmills or gasoline en- 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



129 



gines, with a complete description of the power, its revolutions per minute, volt- 
age, cycles, phase, direct or alternating current, etc. 

Where a supply of pure water may be obtained in the immediate neighbor- 
hood, which is so situated that a considerable fall may be obtained within a rea- 
sonable distance, a hydraulic ram may be used for pumping. 

Hydraulic Ram — Hints on Installation and Operation.— The hydraulic 
ram is a simple though wasteful machine, which utilizes the momentum of a 
stream of water falling a small height to elevate a portion of that water to a 
greater height. A complete installation consists of a drive pipe, ram, and deliv- 




Fig. 22. — Cross section of simple type of hydraulic ram. 



ery pipe, and the ram itself consists of an air chamber, dash valve, delivery valve, 
and body pipe. 

The hydraulic ram is often used to elevate water from a pure spring. Water 
may be elevated from streams to stock tanks, but this water should not be used 
for household purposes. The flow of the spring should not be less than one-half 
gallon per minute. It is necessary that there be considerable difference in eleva- 
tion between the level of the supply and a convenient location for the ram 
within a reasonable distance. Figure 22 shows a cross section of a simple type 
of hydraulic ram. Figure 23 shows the usual relative positions of spring, ram, 
and storage tank. 

The operation of a ram may be briefly explained as follows : the water flow- 
ing down the drive pipe acquires a certain energy due to its weight and velocity 
and, upon entering the body pipe of the ram, strikes the open dash valve with 
considerable force, which is sufficient to close it. The result is, that the water 
piles up and exerts an interior pressure, which causes the delivery valve to open, 
admitting water into the air chamber. (See Fig. 22). The water then rebounds 



130 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



back up the drive pipe until forced down again by the weight of the water 
in the drive pipe, and the operation is repeated. During each momentary reflow 
a small quantity of water is forced into the air chamber, compressing the air. The 
resulting air pressure forces water up the delivery pipe to the point of delivery. 
The operation of a ram is continuous, once started, until the valves become worn. 
The ordinary small ram completes its cycle about 60 times a minute, the length 
of stroke of the dash valve governing the number of pulsations per minute. 

The length of drive pipe is most important and is governed by the ratio of 
the fall to the elevation. If too long or too short the automatic supply of air is 
interfered with and the efficiency impaired. The length of drive pipe is usually 



-D#IVt TANK 





fteuer iftLve 



cierAT/of/ or noose 



Lirr. "h^hy/u. mnr rr/r/t /f&ra>/*o 
ON P&SSSWC C/tl/OC ow 

to £.3 /"aw?- ornt»o. 



Fig. 23.— Hydraulic ram pumping to a pneumatic tank supply system, showing usual relative position 

of spring, ram, and storage tank. 



about 7 times the height of fall, although this may vary between 5 and 10, de- 
pending on the height and distance to which water is to be delivered. The di- 
ameter of the drive pipe is usually twice that of the discharge pipe. 

The proper size of ram to suit certain conditions depends on the following: 
(1) The flow of water from the source of supply, determined by the time necessary 
to fill a vessel of known capacity or by weir measurement; (2) the difference 
between the level of the supply and the lowest point within a reasonable distance 
for the location of the ram; (3) the distance between the source of supply and 
the proposed location of the ram; (4) the difference in level between the ram lo- 
cation and the highest point to which water is to be delivered; (5) length of pipe 
necessary to conduct the water to the point of delivery. In purchasing a ram this 
information should be sent to manufacturers. 

Sometimes a double-acting ram is installed where there is a spring too small 
to operate a single-acting ram but located near a brook from which an ample 
supply and fall can be obtained to operate the ram. These are so constructed 
that if properly installed under a fall of at least 2 feet below the spring and 3 
feet below the brook, it is impossible to deliver anything but the spring water. 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



131 



Figure 24 illustrates this method. If this method is preferred, it should be so 
stated in purchasing. The following table gives approximate sizes of hydraulic 
rams to suit certain conditions. 

There are four separate problems connected with the hydraulic ram. These, 
with practical examples, are described by W. C. Davidson as follows: (1) Given 
the fall, lift, and quantity of water desired, find the necessary supply at spring. 



poiv/r/f tv/rrottsm. 




i 




\ 


f. ■■■■■;• i 


ft 


\ 










Cs 


8 


- z -~-~~ 1 





5 sfirwe wiTre itysi.-. 




V* Supply 



check Mtvc 

*\P(JP£ WAT£0 ~^s, 
0O0Y PlPC 

FlQ. 24.— Double acting hydraulic ram, showing method of using a turbid creek supply to pump clear 

spring water. 

(2) Given the lift, quantity of drive water, and quantity of water desired, find 
the fall required. (3) Given the fall, lift, and quantity of drive water, find the 
quantity of water supplied to the storage tank. (4) Given the fall, quantity of 
drive water, and quantity of water desired, find how high this water can be 
pumped. 

SIZES OF HYDRAULIC RAMS 





Dimensions 


Size of 
drive pipe 


Size of 

delivery 

pipe 


Quantity 
per minute 

required 

to operate 

engine 


Least fall 


Number 


Height 


Length 


Width 


recom- 
mended 


10 

15 

20 

25 

30.. 

40 


Ft. Ins. 
2 2 
2 2 
2 5 
2 5 

2 7 

3 7 


Ft. Ins. 

2 10 

3 
3 3 
3 4 

3 ,7 

4 9 


Ft. Ins. 
12 

12 

1 2 
1 3 
1 3 
1 8 


Ins. 

IK 

VA 

2 

2V 2 
3 
4 


Ins. 

u 

l 

l 
1M 

2 


Gallons 

2- 6 

6-12 

8-18 

12-28 

20-40 

30-75 


Feet 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 



The computations which follow are based upon an approximate rule, which 
is stated as follows : Multiply the fall in feet by the quantity of water supplied 
to the ram in gallons per minute, divide the product by the height the water is to 
be raised, and the result will be in gallons per minute. This may be expressed 

■ Qxh 

in an equation as follows : q = ( ), in which Q = supply of spring in gallons 



per minute. H = fall in feet from spring to ram, h=height of storage tank above 
the ram in feet, q = quantity of water pumped in gallons per minute. The re- 
sult should be reduced by about one-third to allow for friction. 



132 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Example 1. It is desired to find the quantity of drive water in the spring 
necessary to raise 8 gallons per minute to a height of 60 feet, when the head of 
drive water on the ram is 8 feet. Substituting in the equation 

h X q 8 X 60 

Q = = = 60 gallons per minute. 

H. 8 

In this case about one-third of the result should be added to allow for fric- 
tion in pipes, valves, etc., making the necessary drive water supply 80 gallons. 
Example 2. It is desired to find the necessary fall from the spring to the 
ram in order to supply the storage tank with 2 gallons per minute, when the drive 
water supply in the spring is 10 gallons per minute and the height to which the 
water is to be pumped is 40 feet. Substituting in the equation 

h X q 2 X 40 

H = = = 8 feet. 

Q io 

Add one-third to allow for friction, making the total fall necessary 10.66 feet. 

The following table gives commercial estimates of the quantities of water de- 
livered in 24 hours under certain conditions : 



Capacity of hydraulic rams. 



Power 

head 

in 

feet. 












Pumping head 


in feet — 














4 


10 


15 


20 


30 


140 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


120 


1,0 


160 


180 


200 


2 
3 
4 

5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 
2G 
28 
30 


540 


192 
301 
432 
540 


12S 
192 
256 
315 
432 
505 


9C 
144 

192 
240 
302 
378 
432 
4S5 
510 


G4 
96 
128 
160 
192 
235 
270 
300 
360 
430 
505 


43 
72 
96 
120 
144 
168 
192 
216 
"252 
301 
353 
432 
486 
540 


29 
58 
77 
96 
115 
134 
154 
173 
192 
230 
270 
323 
390 
430 
475 
520 


24 

43 
64 
80 
96 
112 
128 
144 
160 
192 
224 
257 
303 
336 
370 
405 
470 
505 
540 




















37 
55 
69 
82 
96 
110 
124 
137 
165 
192 
220 
247 
288 
303 
346 
375 
430 
465 


27 
43 
60 
72 
84 
96 
108 
120 
144 
168 
192 
216 
240 
264 
288 
328 
354 
405 


24 
38 
53 
64 
75 
86 
96 
107 
128 
150 
171 
192 
214 
235 
256 
278 
300 
336 














29 
43 
57 
67 
77 
86 
96 
115 
135 
154 
173 
192 
212 
230 
250 
269 
288 


24 
30 
43 
50 
64 
72 
80 
96 
112 
128 
144 
160 
176 
192 
208 
224 
240 










26 
31 
36 
55 
62 
68 
82 
96 
110 
124 
137 
151 
161 
178 
192 
206 








27 
31 

43 
54 
60 
72 
84 
96 
108 
120 
132 
144 
156 
168 
180 


24 

28 
38 
43 
53 
64 
75 
85 
96 
107 
118 
128 
139 
149 
160 


25 

29 
39 
43 
57 
67 
77 
86 
96 
105 
115 
125 
131 
144 




















































. 1 . 


























































"1 












1 





Multiply factor opposito "power head" and under "pumping head" by the number of gallons per 
minute used by the engine and tho result will bo the number of gallons delivered per day. Example: With 
a supply of 6 gallons per minute, 10 foot fall, 40 feet elovation, No. 10 or 15 engine will deliver 1,512 gallons 
per day; 6X252=1,512. 

This table will give only approximate quantities since the results will vary with tho length of delivery 
pipe. Due consideration of pipe friction will give more correct results. 

The efficiency developed is governed by the ratio of fall to pumping head, being greatest for a ratio of I to 
2} or 1 to 3, and tho ram will not usually work well when tho ratio is over 1 to 25, friction in tho delivery 
pipe being duly considered. 

Example 3. It is desired to find how much water will be delivered into 
the storage tank if the drive water supply is 6 gallons per minute, the fall is 10 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



133 



feet, and the height to which the water is to be pumped is 40 feet. Substituting 
in the equation 

2 X H 6 X 10 

q = = = 1.5 gallons per minute. 

h 40 

Deduct one-third of this result to allow the fraction, making the quantity de- 
livered per minute 1 gallon. 

Example 4. It is desired to find how high 1 gallon per minute can be 
pumped if the drive water supply is 4 gallons per minute and the fall is 15 feet. 
Substituting in the equation 

QXH 4X15 
h= = =60 feet. 

q 1 

Deduct one-third to allow for friction, making the result 40 feet. 

The above computations are only approximate, but should give a good gen- 
eral idea of the operation of a ram. 



SUPPLY 7*NH 



CPIV£ T/W/t 



tYATCit trrei. 




tArrcff/f£o//»T£ m/v/r 



ffAM PIT 

Fig. 25. — Two methods of securing the necessary fall in drive pipe. 

The spring should be walled in to form a reservoir as shown in the dis- 
cussion of springs, page 115. If a stream is used it should be dammed back 
until a sufficient flow and fall is obtained. 

Rams may be obtained to supply water for both elevated tank and pneu- 
matic tank systems. In purchasing a ram this should also be specified. 

In order to obtain the desired fall it is often necessary to convey the water 
a greater distance than the length of drive pipe used. Figure 25 illustrates two 
methods of securing the necessary fall. 

It is necessary to provide a shelter for the hydraulic ram to prevent freezing 
in cold weather. The pipes should also be placed below the frost line. In setting 
a ram the foundation should be firm and level. The drive pipe should be laid on 



134 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



a perfectly straight incline without bends or curves, except where the pipe enters 
the ram, and this should be made by bending the pipe. Fittings should not be 
used. The upper end of the drive pipe should be sufficiently below the surface 
of the water to prevent air suction — at least a foot. A good open strainer should 
be provided at the upper end. Above all things the drive pipe should be air- 
tight- 

The delivery pipe may be laid with the necessary tends, according to the 
usual practice in laying water pipes, but all pipes should be connected before 
starting the engine and they should be left uncovered until all leaks are stopped. 
However, there should be as few bends and elbows in the delivery pipe as pos- 
sible in order to reduce friction. 

Manufacturers of hydraulic rams should supply directions .for the proper 
installation, operation, and care of their particular rams, and these directions 
should be carefully followed. 

Plumbing. 

Important Points to be Considered. — The important points to be con- 
sidered in the arrangement of a plumbing system are (1) durability of material 
and construction, and (2) simplicity. Avoid any complication of pipes and 
arrange the water pipes so as to carry the water to the point of discharge in as 
nearly a straight line as possible. The use of lead pipe or lead-lined receptacles 
for drinking water should be avoided in small private systems. 

Water Plumbing.— The main pipe from the supply tank should be about 
1%. inches in diameter and never less than 1 inch. It leads to the kitchen range 
and then branches. One branch conveys cold water to the fixtures and the 
other conveys water through the heater, through the hot-water tank, and thence 
to the hot-water fixtures. The hot-water pipe should parallel the coldwater pipe 
but should not be so close that the temperature of either will affect that of the 
other. The arrangment of water pipes, hot-water tank, etc., is shown in figure 
14. The hot-water pipes are shown in black. All water pipes should be put in 
with red lead and all fittings should be screwed tight. The natural direction of 
travel of hot water is upward, and this should be aided, in arranging the hot- 
water pipes, as much as possible. 

The sizes of pipes generally used for supplying water to the various fixtures 
are given in the following table : 

SIZES OE WATER PIPES IN BUILDINGS 



Supply Branches 


Low 
Pressure 


High 
Pressure 


Supply Branches 

To water-closet flush 

pipes 

To kitchen sinks 

To pantry sinks 

To slop sinks 


Low 
Pressure 


High 
Pressure 


To bath cocks 

To basin cocks 

To water-closet flush 


Inches 

M-i 
l A 

Vz 
l -1M 


Inches 

l A- Z A 
A 


Inches 


Inches 


tank 

To water-closet flush 
valve 


YrY% 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



135 



All water pipes should have sufficient slant to drain them back into the 
tank or drainage system. A drain pipe and cock should be provided at the low 
point in the system, so that in extremely cold weather the system may be drained 
into the sewer or drainage system to prevent freezing. This necessitates a stop 
cock on the pressure-tank outlet to prevent draining the tank. 

Pipes should be kept from the outer walls to prevent freezing. Also pipes 
located where they are in any danger whatever of freezing should be boxed 
in sawdust or some other nonconducting material. 

Since a plentiful supply of hot water is convenient and a large quantity re- 
tains heat for some time, it is well to provide a fairly large hot-water tank. 
However, the size of boiler depends on the existing conditions, such as the water 
supply and the size of building. A safe rule is to allow a 35 or 40 gallon boiler 



*«»*\WM 




Fig. 26.— Sewer trap at bouse foundation, showing ventilator 



to a building having one bath-room and to add 30 gallons additional capacity 
for every extra bath-room. One hundred square inches of water-back heating 
surface is sufficient for a 40-gallon boiler. 

Boilers should be galvanized inside and out, particularly inside. Copper 
boilers are preferable if properly coated inside with block tin. These are classed 
as light, heavy, and extra heavy, the latter being tested to 150 pounds water pres- 
sure. Ordinary steel or iron boilers are tested to 150 pounds water pressure and 
extra heavy ones to 250 pounds pressure. The latter should be used when the 
gauge pressure is more than 40 pounds per square inch. The following table 
gives standard sizes of galvanized boilers : 

STANDARD SIZES OF GALVANIZED BOILERS 



Capacity 


Length 


Diam. 


Capacity 


Length 


Diam. 
Inches 


Capacity 


Length 


Diam. 


Gallons 


Feet 


Inches 


Gallons 


Feet 


Gallons 


Feet 


Inches 


18 


3 


12 


36 


4M 


14 


82 


5 


20 


21 


3K 


12 


40 


5 


14 


98 


6 


20 


24 


4 


12 


42 


4 


16 


100 


5 


22 


24 


3 


14 


47 


4^ 


16 


120 


6 


22 


27 


4^ 


12 


48 


6 


14 


120 


5 


24 


28 


3^ 


14 


52 


5 


16 


144 


6 


24 


30 


5 


12 


53 


4 


18 


168 


7 


24 


32 


4 


14 


63 


6 


16 


182 


8 


24 


35 


5 


13 


66 


5 


18 








36 


6 


12 


79 


6 


18 









136 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Sewer Plumbing. — The sewer plumbing serves as a drain for the water 
plumbing. The drainage system should be so constructed as to carry away com- 
pletely everything emptied into it, and it should be constantly vented, frequently 
and thoroughly flushed, and have each of its openings into the house securely 
guarded. All drains, soil pipe, and waste pipe should be water-tight and air- 
tight. The soil pipe or house-drainage main begins at the sewer opening and 
passes up through the house as nearly vertical as possible and out through the 
roof for free ventilation. It should be at least 4 inches in diameter, of extra 
heavy cast iron, and all joints should be tightly calked with lead and oakum. All 
discharge from the wash basins, sinks, and toilets empties into the soil pipe, and 
connections should be tightly made. The sewer inside the cellar wall should al- 
ways be soil pipe ; tile should never be used except outside of the wall. A soil- 
pipe trap should be provided at the house foundation, as shown in Figure 26. 
Every fixture should have a trap to prevent foul air from coming back through 
the waste pipe. Vent pipes should be provided on all waste pipes to prevent 
siphonage and the consequent destroying of the traps. Figure 27 shows a good 
arrangement of sewer plumbing. Note the traps and vent pipes on each waste 
pipe. The least sizes of waste and vent pipes are given in the table below. 

SIZES OF WASTE AND VENT PIPES 



Name of Pipe 



Main and branch soil pipe 

Main waste pipe 

Branch waste pipes for kitchen sinks 

Bath or sink waste pipes 

Basin waste pipe 

Pantry sink waste pipe 

Water-closet trap 



Diameter 



Inches 
4 

2 

2 

1^-2 

33^-4 



Name of Pipe 



Wash tubs, 13^-inch waste pipe to 
2-inch trap for 2 tubs 

Waste pipes for 3 or 4 tubs 

Main vents and long branches .... 

Branch vents for traps over 2 inches 

Branch vents for traps less than 2 
inches 



Diameter 



Inches 

lVr-2 
2 
2 

2 

\v 



All plumbing should be tested by filling with water or smoke to detect leaks. 



Sewage Purification and Disposal. 

The problem of the purification and disposal of farm sewage by small pri- 
vate systems, differs somewhat from that of city sewage disposal, owing prin- 
cipally to the extreme fluctuations in flow, small size of the system, and varia- 
tion in the quality of the sewage. 

The process of sewage disposal is partly mechanical and partly bacterial, 
consisting of (1) preliminary or tank treatment and of (2) final treatment, which 
is application to a natural soil by surface or subsurface distribution or to an es- 
pecially prepared filter. 

Preliminary or Septic-Tank Treatment. — The exact nature of the action 
which takes place in a septic tank is a subject of dispute among sanitary experts 
and bacteriologists. Several theories have been advanced, but it is apparent that 
no definite conclusion has been reached. Some authorities advocate the use of 
open ventilated tanks, others advocate the use of air-tight tanks. 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



137 



l/^nfi/affort 



Experience has shown that, in a small sewage disposal system, a dark, air- 
tight tank of sufficient capacity and so constructed that sewage may remain in it 
entirely at rest for a period of from 18 to 24 hours gives the best results and the 
least annoyance. The solid matter settles out in such a tank and is partially 
liquefied, deodorized, and destroyed by countless numbers of bacteria, which 
thrive in filth and live without 
air. Some authorities assert 
that these bacteria also 
slightly affect the dissolved 
organic matter in raw liquid 
sewage. 

In such a tank a thick 
scum forms on the surface of 
the sewage, which protects the 
bacteria from the incoming air 
and is evidence of good bac- 
terial action. The breaking up 
or disturbance of this scum 
will destroy the bacterial ac- 
tion for the time being and is 
likely to cause considerable 
annoyance of bad odors. 

Final Treatment. — It is 
found that the septic tank ef- 
fects only about 40 percent 
purification. The liquefying 
action in the tank, however, 
makes it possible to subject 
the sewage to a final treat- 
ment by filtration or distribu- 
tion in a natural soil. This 
final purification is effected by 
means of bacteria which work 
in the air. Therefore it is 
necessary that the sewage be 
applied to the final disposal 
system in intermittent doses 
so that the system may have a 
chance to air out. If the sew- 
age is applied continuously 
and in such quantities that the 
system is kept saturated, the 
filter or disposal area becomes 
water-logged and "sewage 
sick" and ceases to be effec- 
tive. It is therefore necessary 



Wote/-C/ot»f 




7"^ Sewsr- -* 



Fig. 27.-Plumbing system for sewage disposal. 



138 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

that the final treatment system be of sufficient capacity to dispose of each sew- 
age quickly. 

Double-Chamber Septic-Tank Systems. — The septic tank for a small 
sewage-disposal system should ordinarily consist of two chambers. In this type 
of tank the sewage is received, settled, and partially purified in one chamber and 
collected and discharged from a second chamber. This type of tank, if properly 
designed, should give satisfactory operation, since the sewage in the settling 
chamber suffers little disturbance, and the discharge to the final disposal sys- 
tem may be made intermittent by means of an automatic siphon placed in the 
discharge chamber. 

Design. — Practice indicates that the settling chamber of a small septic 
tank should have a capacity of from 5 to 15 cubic feet or from 40 to 80 gallons 
per person in the family. Some allow an average of 10 or 11 cubic feet per 
person. The best results are obtained when the capacity approaches the larger 
limit, so that 18 to 36 hours' sewage from the house may be held at one time, 
thus causing the sewage to remain in the tank and undergo sedimentation and 
bacterial action for this length of time. But care should be taken not to make 
the tank so large that liquefied sewage will remain in it more than 36 hours, for in 
that event putrefaction is likely to set in. For this reason one should make an 
accurate estimate of the daily sewage flow, which will be practically equal to the 
daily water consumption- Although a depth of 3 feet may be sufficient for 
some classes of sewage, it is better to have the depth from 4 to 8 feet, according 
to the number of people, in order to give the sludge a good chance to settle and 
liquefy. The width of the chamber may ordinarily be about one-third or one- 
half the length, although this may vary for economy and convenience. However, 
the width should not be less than 3 feet. 

The inlet from .the house should be provided with an elbow, so that the 
discharge will be at least a foot below the contained sewage, thus preventing 
disturbance of the surface scum. The outlet from the settling chamber should be 
equipped in the same way. Where the entrance and discharge velocities are 
very strong, baffle walls of wood or concrete should be placed before these open- 
ings to break the current. These precautions are especially beneficial in the 
smaller sized tanks. 

The discharge chamber should be of such capacity and depth as to discharge 
about every 10 to 12 hours. It may be desirable to discharge at more or less 
frequent intervals, according to the nature of the soil in the disposal area, and 
this may be controlled by the arrangement of the discharge chamber and siphon. 
Where little outlet fall is available it is possible to so construct the discharge 
chamber that its floor will be considerably above that of the settling chamber. 

The capacity and depth of discharge chamber and the size of siphon will de- 
pend on the number of persons served and the means of disposal. If a sand 
filter is used or a distribution system in heavy loam, the discharge chamber must 
be larger and deeper, in order that the discharge interval may be lengthened and 
the distribution system be given ample time to aerate. If the distribution is in 
sandy or very porous soil the discharge may be more frequent. 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



139 



The following table of dimensions of septic tanks, suggests sizes of settling 
and discharge chambers and the corresponding siphon sizes applying to various 
average conditions. The depths of siphon chamber given are the minimum 
allowable. 

DIMENSIONS OF SEPTIC TANKS 











Siphon Chamber 




Number 
Persons 


Settling Chamber 


Sand Filter or Heavy 


Sandy or Porous Soil 


Siphon 
Diam- 




Loam Distribution 


Distribution 














Mini- 






Mini- 


eter 




Width 


Length 


Depth 


Width 


Length 


mum 


Width 


Length 


mum 






Inside 


Inside 




Inside 


Inside 


Depth 


Inside 


Inside 


Depth 






Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Feet 


Ft. In. 


Feet 


Feet 


Ft. In. 


Inches 


6 


4 


6 


Wz 


4 


3 


2 4 


3 


2 


2 4 


3 


8 


4 


&A 


4 


4 


4 


2 4 


3 


2V 2 


2 4 


3 


12 


4 


7 


5 


4 


5 


2 5 


3 


4 


2 5 


4 


15 


4 


8 


5 


4 


6 


2 5 


3 


4 


2 5 


4 


25 


4 


10 


5 


4 


6K 


3 2 


3V 2 


4 


3 2 


5 


35 


4^ 


12 


5 


4 


6M 


3 2 


3% 


4^ 


3 2 


5 



The above table is computed on the basis that the inlet and outlet of the 
settling chamber should be placed with their inverts 12 inches below the roof 
of the tank, thus making the depth of sewage in both settling and discharge 
chamber 12 inches less than the mean inside depth. 

The tank dimensions given in the above table, it should be remembered, are 
for average cases only and are not standard for all such cases. They are sub- 
ject to such variations to suit local conditions as the farmer's judgment indicates; 



""7 

-1 



I — s'-o"- — . 



Cancrs/e ey/xcA-* *."\ 




4&/X- 



.3 yybocfe/r ma/riafe cove/? 







Fic 28.— Double chamber septic tank for six people, suited to conditions where plenty of outlet fall is 

available. 



140 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



yet care should be taken not to vary any of the essential dimensions and not to 
go below the given minimum depth of siphon chamber. 

Figure 28 shows a type of double chamber septic tank for a family of six 
people, designed by W. C. Davidson. Figure 29 is another type of septic tank 
for a family of eight people. These tanks are suited to conditions where plenty 



d 



HI 






jq 



C./.MANHOLS 



C. / ff/WHOLE _ |^»| 

\. °. m 3 ■ v > ".■.«. ■.■■a, ■ ■ 'id fcnj-;, a .. 






'/4 m RODS 



WATER LINC. 



6'6' 



SiORS SLIGHTW TOWARD /NL£T 






SFCT/ONAL V/EW. 



OVERFLOW 




H 




c: 


4o 

\t 6 6" 


\ 

J 
o 

\r 

-I . 
1 


1 1 
1 I 

\ ! 

• 
i 




i 
i 








■TO" 



TOP V/£W. 

Fjg. 29.— Double chamber septic lank for eight people. 



£=t> 



of outlet fall is available. Figure 30 is a double-chamber tank for a family of 
six persons, designed by C. A. Ocock of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment 
Station. This tank is suited to flat ground where outlet fall is difficult to obtain, 
as will be noted by the difference in elevation between the floors of the two 
chambers. For satisfactory operation a small septic tank should not be built 
of smaller size than for six persons. 

Location and Construction. — The septic tank, although air-tight and sup- 
posedly water-tight, should be located as far from the house and the well or 
spring as convenience and local surroundings will permit. It thus reduces the 
danger of pollution or nuisance in case of leakage or improper operation of the 

system. 

The sewer from the house should be of vitrified sewer pipe, usually of 4 
inch size, with tightly cemented joints, and should be laid to a grade not less than 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



141 



9 inches per 100 feet. Where the fall from the house to the tank is excessive, 
it is a good idea to lay the last 100 feet of tile at the minimum grade to break up 
entrance velocity. 

The septic tank should be constructed as nearly water-tight as possible, pref- 
erably of concrete. The walls should be 6 or 8 inches thick, the floor 4 to 6 inches 
thick, and the roof, about 6 inches thick and re-enforced. Some means should 
be provided at the bottom to aid the cleaning out of settled sludge. Either the 



fL 



p^ssmss^iss^^^gs^M^^^^gi 



ID 



Capacity, . 



Ca/xx?//y 320^crA 



\S\\ 



gE££2gSS^3S33i£aa^E^312cg^M 






'/yzp/77 /7ot*se 



f tsr or 

i->±l ^ -ft 'ca ,.S_J /• i 



kj .1.0 611 %y $<*£ 






i 



i ir-i '-•'• ->i ; 




Fig. 30. — Double chamber septic tank for family of six people, suitable to conditions where outlet fall is 

difficult to obtain. 



floor may be sloped toward the inlet end for this purpose or a pipe with a valve 
may be installed below the tank, as shown respectively in figures 29 and 28. The 
discharge chamber should be fitted with an outlet set above the siphon which 
will allow the sewage to escape in case the siphon becomes clogged. 

A concrete mixture of 1 part cement to 2 or %y 2 parts sand and 4 or 5 
parts of broken stone or gravel should be used in the construction of the tank. 

The Automatic Siphon.— The automatic siphon may be installed to 
operate as frequently as may seem desirable- Figure 31 shows a 3 or 4 inch au- 
tomatic siphon installed. The siphon operates as follows: As the liquid enters 
the discharge chamber its weight increases with increasing depth, and the air 
between the water surface in the bell and the water inside the "siphon leg" is 
compressed. As the water outside increases in depth the compression inside 
becomes greater until the water outside reaches the drawing or discharge depth 
for the siphon. Then the inside pressure is sufficient to force the water in the 



142 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



siphon leg around the bend, instantly relieving the compression. The water 
from the tank then rushes in to fill up the space which was occupied by the 
air and starts the siphon, which continues until the outside and inside pressures 
are again equalized. 



L.WL ■" 



jfrfote 




JC\ 




Fig. 31. — Three-inch or four-inch automatic siphon installed. 

The following table gives working data and dimensions, as shown in figure 
31, to be used in-installing 3, 4, and 5 inch siphons. Sizes of 5 inches and over 
are constructed a little differently from the 3 and 4 inch sizes, although the work- 
ing principles are the same. 

DIMENSIONS FOR AUTOMATIC SIPHONS 



Dimension 



Diameter of siphon 

Diameter of bell 

Diameter of discharge head . 

Drawing depth 

Depth of trap 

Width of trap 

Height above floor 

Clearance under bell 

Diameter of carrier 

Invert to discharge line 



Average discharge per second cubic feet . 



Reference 
Letter 



A 
B 

C 
D 
F 
G 

II 
K 
S 
J 



Inches 



3 
10 

4 
13 
12 
10 

2 

4 

20K 



0.16 



Inches 



4 
12 

4 
14 
13 
12 

SH 

2 
4- 6 
22^ 



0.35 



Inches 



5 
15 

6 
23 
22 
14 

3 



6- 8 



33U 



0.73 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



143 



The Final Disposal System. 

Disposal by Surface or Subsurface Distribution. — Where the soil is porous 
or sandy and there is plenty of area available, which is used for no other purpose, 
the sewage from the septic tank may be discharged through 4-inch distribution- 
tile laid on the surface of the ground in gridiron or herringbone fashion. Four 
hundred and fifty to 500 square feet of area are necessary for each person served 



6Ar£ en/ween 




Fig. 32.— Ground plans of tile sewage disposal systems. 



if the soil is very porous and sandy, and the soil should either be tile-drained or 
have natural underdrainage 

A better method of disposal is by subsurface distribution. In this method 
the tile are placed in the ground in herringbone or gridiron fashion, not deeper 
than 14 or 16 inches from the surface of the soil to the top of the tile. Figure 
32 shows ground plans of such systems. In very porous or sandy soils 1 foot 
of 4-inch tile per gallon of discharge per day is sufficient. In the heavier loam 
soils 2 feet of 4-inch tile are necessary and sometimes more for every gallon. A 
rough estimate should be made of the number of gallons of sewage in each dis- 
charge from the tank and the number of discharges per day. Not less than 
35 feet of 4-inch tile per person should be used in sandy or porous soil and not 



144 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



less than 60 feet per person in very heavy loams. In average loams 300 to 400 
feet of tile are sufficient for a family of six or eight- 
Aeration of heavy soils can be brought about by the use of coarse cinders 
or gravel laid in 12-inch to 16-inch layers in the bottom of the tile ditch with the 
top about 12 inches below the surface. The tile are laid in these at the usual 
depth. Figure 33 shows such an arrangement. 

The disposal tile should have a fall not to exceed 1 inch in 50 feet, else the 
water will rush to the lower end and water-log the soil there. The tile are usually 
laid about % inch and in rows about 
15 feet apart. The latter distance, 
however, will vary with the porosity 
of the soil. Where there is no sub- 
surface drainage, artificial drainage 
should be provided by means of tile 
drains laid below the sewage tile as 
shown in figure 34. In some cases 
an impervious stratum underlying the 
filter earth is underlain by a stratum 
of sand. Cases have been noted in 
which this impervious stratum has 
been broken by dynamite at 15-foot 
to 20-foot intervals along the tile line, 
thus providing natural drainage. 

Disposal by Intermittent Sand 
Filtration. — If subsurface disposal is 
not feasible, as when the soil is com- 
pact and nearly impenetrable or is 
swampy and under-drainage difficult 
to obtain, disposal by intermittent 
sand nitration is necessary. 

The sand filter usually is a bed 
of sand 3 to 4 feet thick which is 

fine on top and gradually increase in size to coarse gravel at the bottom. The 
sewage from the tank is distributed over the filter by means of tile laid loose 
jointed over the surface in much the same manner as in the ground-surface 
distribution system. The filter should be sufficiently porous. There should be 
sufficient natural or artificial under-drajnage to allow all sewage to sink away 
rapidly. Sewage should not stand on the surface of the filter for any length of 
time,' as this will soon destroy its purifying properties. About 45 square feet 
of filter should be provided for each person served by the sewer. The area 
should be divided into from three to five beds so that each bed may be allowed 
to rest occasionally. Figure 35 shows a plan and partial section of a sand filter 
for a family of eight persons. 

In constructing a filter a sufficient area should be leveled off and small 
earth embankments be made 18 inches to 2 feet hi eh to inclose the beds. The 




Fig. 33. — Cross section of single tile sewage disposal 
system, showing method of aerating heavy soils. 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



145 



depth of the filtering material will depend largely on the porosity of the subsur- 
face and the means of under-drainage, but it is well to have it not less than 2 l / 2 
feet ; 3 to 5 feet is better, and the depth should not exceed 6 feet. A good plan is 

to allow a minimum of 1 cubic 
yard of filtering material for every 
50 gallons of sewage flow. 
Single-Chamber Tank Systems. 
Single - chamber septic - tank 
systems may be made to give good 
satisfaction if properly designed 
and operated. In such a system 
the sewage is received, settled, 
partially purified, and discharged 
by one chamber. 

There is necessarily consider- 
able disturbance of the sewage in 
the tank, and, in addition, the dis- 
charge is continuous. This makes 
necessary two disposal systems, 
with a diverting gate to allow an 
occasional breathing spell for each 
system. If such an arrangement 
is not used the disposal system 
must be of much larger capacity 
than for the double-chamber tank 
system. This is necessary to pre- 
vent the continuous discharge 
from waterlogging the system. 

If a single-chamber tank is 
used it should be designed and 
constructed on the same basis as 
the settling chamber of a double- 
chamber tank, with the elbows at 
inlet and outlet and baffle boards 
before these openings to break up 
the current. 

Figure 36 shows a single- 
chamber tank for a family of six. 
This tank has a continuous dis- 
charge, and it is necessary to use 
a switch or diverting gate, as 
shown in figure 37, so that the liquid sewage may be intermittently diverted 
from one part of the disposal system to another. 

The disposal system should be divided into at least two divisions for inter- 
mittent application, and the capacity of the system should be 10 to 15 per cent 
larger than for a double-chamber tank system. 




Fig. 34.— Cross section of single tile sewage disposal system, 
showing second tile below for underdrainage. 



146 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



The single chamber septic system requires considerable attention, since there 
is no provision for automatic discharge. Figures taken from the work of the 
Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station show that in the long run there is 
little difference in the cost of the single- and double-chamber tank system. 




scrriwa ta/vx 



i/rtoeiroaAiNS 



Fig. 35.— Sand filter for eight people 

_ i — C.f./tANHOLC 



ON LCVCL G0OV/V0 
USe THI3 OUTLET. 




c 



scct/onal view. 

l£L £.01 

' 'I' 



1 



t ;_.!_*.. 



O 



.. ^ j j 



=C=«=t=P 



top v/ew. 

Fio. 36.— Single-chamber septic tank for six people. 



WATER SUPPLIES, PLUMBING AND SEWAGE 



147 



The Grease Trap. 

The grease trap acts as a separator of the grease and sewage from the 
kitchen sink or dairy room. If grease is allowed to enter the sewer it accumu- 
lates and eventually clogs the system. 



CAST IRON COVER 




^m))))M)^))kw/M 



lllllllffli 



C^ST IfPON 
CYLINDER 
D/AMCTEff 12 



FPOri SEPTIC TANK 




gijj I.2& G CONCRETE 
I 



SECT/ON. 



] h&Mgmmmz 



Wmn^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^mm, 






PLAN. 
Fia. 37. — Plan and section of sewage diverting gate. 

Figure 38 shows a grease trap. Two large, glazed sewer tiles are placed in 
the ground. The inlet is usually a 2-inch iron pipe. The outlet must be so ar- 
ranged that the mouth of it is at all times below the surface of the sewage. The 
grease, being lighter, naturally floats upon the water, and is thus prevented from 
entering the outlet. The outlet is made of 44-inch glazed sewer tile and is con- 
nected with the sewer inlet of the septic tank. A concrete cover is provided, 
and grease and dirt which may accumulate are removed when necessary. 

Suggestion on Operation. — Contrary to the usual opinion, small sewage 
systems require some watching and care. It is well to study the system and 



148 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



watch the action in the entire plant for any signs of clogging or waterlogging. 
In this way you will soon become acquainted with the conditions of location and 
soil best suited to your needs and will be able to operate the plant on a satisfac- 
tory basis. 

Conclusion. 

It is hoped that the foregoing discussion has presented information of a 
nature practical enough at least to indicate the general requirements to be met 
in planning sanitary systems adapted to the average farm home. Nevertheless, 



CONCRETE- COVCtt 




w? 






Fig. 38.— Grease trap. 



should the farmer feel that, though desirable, such an installation is beyond his 
own skill, the matter is still of such importance as to make it advisable to em- 
ploy a reliable pump expert, plumber, or sanitary engineer, local prices of labor 
and materials and other conditions permitting. Enormous expenditures are be- 
ing made by progressive cities in the installation of sanitary systems to protect 
the health of their people, and similar protection is surely due the country resi- 
dent. It is urged, therefore, that the questions discussed above be considered 
of prime importance in planning or improving the farm home, instead of being 
postponed to a time when matters do not press for attention. 

We have recommended nothing but that which will be an economical in- 
vestment for every progressive farmer. It is believed that convenience, comfort, 
and economy may be combined in the practical application of the suggestions 
made, providing common sense and proper care are exercised in the installation, 
operation, and maintenance of the conveniences. 



DRAINAGE. 



Introduction. — Most farms need a drainage system of some kind. Even 
highlands under certain conditions are improved by under-drainage. 

Fortunes are being made every year by certain men who know the value 
of drainage, by acquiring large areas of semi-wet and swampy land for a small 
sum per acre and scientifically ditching and under-draining until the same 
becomes a deep rich bed of black loam of unequalled fertility. 

The larger projects are given aid by the state and national governments 
and nearly all of the tillable land is settled. Many of the states have vast 
areas of undrained land, mostly in the middle states and northwest. Ohio, 
Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin and the Dakotas have the 
largest acreage respectively. Fortunately a large part of this is located so 
as to be easily drained. 

The county or state aids the farmer in constructing the larger outlets and 
main ditches, but he must do the small work incident to his particular farm. 

It is the purpose of this discussion to aid the farmer in solving his in- 
dividual problems rather than to present methods for large work. 

BENEFITS OF DRAINAGE. 

Water is deposited in the soil in three forms. Free water, hydroscopic, 
and capillary. The first is that which is visible and that which can be carried 
off by drainage. The last two are invisible and are the forms from which the 
plants derive their supply. It is the free water or excessive water which the 
farmer wishes to eliminate. It is a waste of time to tell any farmer that his 
free water is not good for the soil. An ideal drainage soil is one in which 
the free water or excessive water is from three to four feet below the surface. 
This will give the plants plenty of root space and will afford a supply or 
reservoir, which will dampen the upper layers of the soil through capillarity. 
The benefits of drainage are best expressed by the statement that banks con- 
sider loans on drainage a good investment. Also the buyer will look to the 
drainage of the land before he will look to the good roads which supply it. 

REMOVAL OF FREE OR GROUND WATER. 

To appreciate the value of drainage one must understand the effects of 
free water and the necessity for its removal. First, free water on top of the 
ground will make it muddy and it can not be cultivated. Second, the wet 
places are usually in long, narrow and irregular strips, which cut up the farm 
and make it inconvenient for cultivating. Third, it delays working the ground 
particularly in the spring. Fourth, it keeps the soil cold, (a) because it takes 

149 



150 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

more than half of the heat available to warm this unnecessary water, (b) 
because the evaporation of the water consumes heat which the soil could other- 
wise retain, and (c) because it prevents the warm spring rains from moving 
downward raising the temperature of the soil. Fifth, it excludes the air from 
between the soil particles thus stopping oxidation in the organic matter in the 
soil. Sixth, it limits the root zone of the plants. 

DRAINAGE AS A SPECULATION. 

Good crops bring prosperity to a community. Drainage will bring good 
crops. Prosperity will bring good roads. Good roads will bring prospective 
buyers and when a prospective buyer sees a well-drained piece of land with 
a uniform crop he is interested. 

The writer is personally acquainted with a number of farmers who have 
taken farms that were in a poor state of drainage and repair, have opened the 
ditches, under-drained the land, built new fences, new barns and new houses, 
arranged the fields and the buildings in an attractive manner, and have sold 
them for practically double the money for which they bought them. Their 
next step was to buy another and larger farm of the same condition and repeat 
the process. It takes only two or three years to do this, providing the farmer 
has good health and has not taken too big a piece of land. 

Since speculation brings wealth seemingly without effort, because society 
in general is helping to make that wealth, it is a good plan for a young and 
progressive farmer to take a small farm and improve it to increase its specula- 
tive as well as real value. Once he has shown his ability in handling a thing 
of this kind, he can readily borrow money to handle a larger project. 

OUTLINING THE FARMER'S DRAINAGE PROBLEM. 

The time to judge a farm is before purchasing. The following outline 
will assist both buyer and owner: 

Buying Hints. — 1st. Before buying he should see just how much of the 
farm needs draining, and how badly it needs it. 

2nd. He should look for an outlet. If this is not obtainable he should 
stop right there. 

3rd. He must study the source of the water, whether it comes in on him 
from other lands or whether it is stored for lack of outlet. 

4th. He should investigate the level of the free or ground water. When 
it is above ground it is called surface water, and when it is below it is called 
soil water or ground water. 

5th. He should plan a drainage system, a surface system for the surface 
water, and an under-drainage system for the ground water. At this point he 
will determine whether he wishes to buy or not. 

Owners Hints. — 6th. He should stake out a drainage system in accord- 
ance with his own plans. 

7th. He should consult his neighbor and learn if it is practicable to co- 
operate in order to get larger and better drainage. 



DRAINAGE. 151 

8th. He should employ an experienced surveyor and drainage engineer, 
who checks maps and improves his plans. 

9th. He should select the kind of tile he will use and purchase it in 
carload lots. 

10th. He should have the work done by day labor or contract, whichever 
is most convenient to him at the time. 

11th. He should inspect the work daily, comparing with the engineer's 
notes. 

12th. He should carefully cover the tile and clear the land for plowing 
and cropping. 

13th. He should erect monuments along the fence lines, which will assist 
him in finding the drains at a later period. 

14th. He should observe the results in the following year and locate lines 
of drainage which will be necessary. 

15th. He should maintain both tile and open ditches by keeping them 
clear throughout' the entire year. 

16th. He should maintain a definite program for drainage and tabulate 
the results, and when a prospective buyer comes around, he will be able to 
show accurately the increased value of the land. 

17th. He should become a progressive, contented and valuable citizen 
to the community. 

Now that the problem of drainage is completely in mind, the various 
details will be worked out. 

STAKING OUT THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM. 

Drainage is a possible and a permanent improvement, and it should not 
be executed in a careless and slovenly manner. The success or failure of the 
whole farm may be dependent upon the proper system of drainage. Where 
the ground is rolling, the outlet good, it is an easy matter for the average 
farmer to lay out small drainage systems, but even in these cases it is 
advisable to use a leveling instrument. Where the grades are small, such as 
occur in large flat areas, the best engineering services are the cheapest. 

THE GRADES. 

Most farmers have had considerable experience in ditching, both in open 
and tile drains, and. many of them can ditch very well using a water level, 
but this is unreliable for large projects. The cost of doing the work with an 
instrument or employing a surveyor is such a small part of the benefit to be 
derived that it is not worth while to take chances. Now if there are a number 
of farmers who can co-operate and have an engineer work out a drainage plan 
for a large area, the whole project to cover a number of years for its comple- 
tion, when the cost is divided up, it will be a small matter for each farmer. 

A table will be inserted to show at what grades open ditches and tiles 
may be laid for good service. Less grades than these may be used in case 
the work is very carefully done and diligently maintained. Tile ditches will 



158 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



operate surprisingly well on low grades, when laid to a true grade, on a firm 
bottom which will not allow any of the tile to be broken or moved out of 
position. 

Two simple instruments and the methods of surveying will be described. 
In plates I and II are shown two simple instruments connected by a rubber 
tube. Each instrument consists of a board to which is fastened a glass tube. 




Plate I. Plate II. 

The board is divided into feet and tenths of feet as shown. The use of the 
instrument depends upon the principle that water seeks its own level. So 
long as the communication between the two tubes is not interfered with, the 
principle will hold. Therefore if one of the instruments is placed on higher 
ground than the other, the difference in reading on the board is readily noticed. 
This apparatus can be constructed for less than five dollars and for small 
work will be found to be satisfactory. For extensive surveying another and 
better instrument is suggested. 

HOW TO SURVEY. 

The method of surveying may be described thus : Secure a surveyor's 
level and tripod as shown in figure I. An instrument of this kind sufficient 
for farm drainage can be bought for ten to fifty dollars, the best ones ranging 
from $35 to $40. It is not advisable to pay less than that amount. The instru- 



DRAINAGE. 



153 



ment should read well about twenty rods away, but it will be well for the 
beginner to use shorter distances. In the figure is shown the positions and 
calculations for two set-ups covering a distance of 40 rods, A to C. 

Suppose that A and C, which are 40 rods apart, are different elevations 
and it is desired to find out the difference in elevation of the two points. 
First set up the instrument at point X, about one-fourth of the distance from 
A to C. Adjust the foot screws on the instrument until the bubble is exactly 
on center. Have the rodman hold the rod on the stake at A. Sight through 
the telescope and read the number where the horizontal cross-hair cuts the 
rod. Suppose that to be 3.68 feet. This is called a back sight, and shows that 



MJ=. LOJL 68 



Ok5 



Ai 




tion or Datum P/an<z (E )evo> t/on = /QoooF t) 

,,„„. hU,= S&.4-5. 

Grounds — -Sffig-5.= I 




'«■ 40 Pods 

Figure I 

the instrument is 3.68 feet above stake A. Assume the stake A to be at 
elevation of 100, then the elevation of the instrument, or the HI will be 103.68. 
Now send the rodman forward towards C to a point half way between A and 
C and drive another stake B. Hold the rod on this stake and take the reading 
as before. This time it is found to be 6.85 feet. This is a fore sight reading. 
This means that the point B is 6.85 feet below the height of the instrument. 
Subtract this from 103.68 and the elevation of B becomes 96.83 feet. Now 
move the instrument from X to Y, a point half way between B and C. Back 
sight as before and add this reading to the elevation of B. It gives the new 
height of the instrument 98.45. Now send the rodman ahead to C and take 
a reading of the fore sight which is found to be 11.59 feet. C is 11.59 feet 
below the new HI, which gives the final elevation as 86.86 feet. 

In the following table I will illustrate the form of notes to be kept for 
doing this work. A brief study of the figure and the description and the table 
will readily make plain all of the operations that must be taken. 

TABLE 1. 



Station 


B. S. 


H. I. 


F. S. 


Elevation 


Remarks 


A 


3.68 
1.62 






100.00 
96.83 

86.86 


Stake at hedge fence 


B 

c 


103.68 
98.45 


6.85 
11.59 


Stake 5 feet north of maple tree 
Stake at bank of creek 









154 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



If the instrument is in proper adjustment, after once leveled up it should 
remain level for every position of the telescope. Should this not be true, be 
careful to level every time when a shot is to be taken. Do not try to adjust 
the instrument unless thoroughly acquainted with its adjustment. It should 
be taken to a competent engineer for proper adjustment when out of order. 
He can do it in 15 or 20 minutes. 



Op- 



en 



.drain M^" ==^= = 



_WetMorshMueJs2cejOO^ 
sfTTjy '//////'/ '////s/'/, '. ''/ <y///// < 




The following table prepared by Mr. Elliot is helpful in determining its 



size : 



CAPACITY OF MAIN DRAINS. 



Diameter 




Fall 


in inches per 100 feet of drain 




of Tile 


5 / 8 -in. 


lA-in. 


2%-in. 3^-in. 4%-in. 


6-in. 


Inches 


Acres of Land Drained 


5 


14 


19 


21 


24 


27 


30 


6 


22 


26 


33 


39 


43 


48 


7 


32 


39 


48 


57 


64 


70 


8 


45 


54 


68 


79 


89 


88 


9 


61 


72 


91 


106 


119 


131 


10 


70 


94 


118 


138 


155 


170 


12 


125 


148 


186 


217 


244 


269 


14 


184 


217 


272 


318 


358 


394 


16 


256 


302 


379 


443 


498 


549 


18 


342 


405 


508 


594 


668 


725 


20 


445 


526 


660 


771 


868 


955 



This table shows a number of acres and also the grade and size of tile to 
drain said acres. For example we will take a 40 acre field, with a slope of 
1 inch to the 100 feet, a 7 inch tile will do the work. Note that if the grade 
is increased, the size of tile can be decreased. For instance if you have 4 
inches to the 100 feet, a 6 inch tile will be large enough. It is important 
therefore to get as much grade as possible. 



DRAINAGE. 



155 




PLATE III. — Laborer Digging- to the Grade by Means of Crossbars and a Tight Line. 




* PLATE IV. — Drainage Tools. Description (from left 

to right): SolJd top spade, solid bottom spade, dirt 

: shovel, 4-mch drain cleaner, 5-inch drain cleaner, tile 
hook, open top spade and open bottom spade. 



156 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



PLACING THE LATERALS. 

To make this more clear, we will divide the soil into two grades: the 
close or clay soils, the open or sandy soils. In close soils the laterals may be 
placed from 50 to 100 feet apart ; in open or sandy, from 100 to 350 feet apart. 

CONSTRUCTING THE DITCH AND GRADING. 

First see that the ditch is properly staked out in straight or easily curved 
lines. The first-class ditcher will always stretch a line and dig carefully. 

See Plate III. Complete equipment 
is shown in Plate IV. Good work 
requires good and proper tools. 

UNDER-DRAINAGE. 

Under-drainage is a means by 
which excessive or free water is re- 
moved from the soil to a depth be- 
low the root zone of the plant by 
laying tile of various sizes and 
depths, depending on the character 
of the soil, the extent of the area 
drained, the slope, and the amount 
of rainfall in that region. 

Surface drainage is accom- 
plished by open ditches to carry off 
the surface water and will also carry 
off some free water, but it has a 
disadvantage of taking up too much 
space from the crops. Also in 
dense soils the lateral flow of the 

ground or free water does not take place rapidly enough to drain into an open 

ditch. 

LOCATION. 

The location of the under-drainage is the most important. What is 
meant by location is not only the relative position in regard to the boundaries 
of the field but also the depth and the direction as determined by the slope 
of the ground. Marshes occurring at the foot of highlands are usually made 
wet by seepage. The line should be laid parallel to the slope and at the 
outer edge of the marsh. A test pit should be dug to find, if possible, the 
strata of soil through which the seepage comes, so that this strata may be 
tapped and drained before the water can reach the marsh. In many cases 
one tile will complete the drainage. Such an arrangement is shown in the 
Figure 2. 

Drainage systems consist of mains, sub-main laterals, and sub-laterals. 
The main is a drain through which all the water eventually flows. A sub- 
main gathers the water from the laterals and carries it to the mains and in 
the same way the lateral empties into a main or sub-main or a sub-lateral 




Fig. 3 — Sketch showing a "random" drainage system 
and the location of tile used in draining 40 acres 
of land in Scott County, 111. Only part of this 
land needed drainage. 



DRAINAGE 



157 



empties into a lateral. A system may contain one or all of these divisions. 

There are three general systems in use. The first is the random shown 
in figure 3. Where the ground is uneven and the drainage problem special, 
this is the most economical system to adopt. It is important first to put in 
the mains, then the sub-mains and laterals as time and money will permit. 

The other two systems are known as the complete systems. The first 
shown in figure A is the branching system. The second in figure 5 is the 





Fie- 4 — Sketch showing a system of drain- 
age in which the cost of installing is 
increased by too much double draining. 



Fig. 5 — Sketch showing a system of drain- 
age by which the area of double-drained 
land is reduced to a minimum. 



gridiron system. The economy of the last two will be illustrated in this 
way. Near the mains, both the laterals and the mains drain the land; con- 
sequently the less overlapping, the less the waste by double draining. The 
double drained areas are shown in the figures. For this reason the number 
of tile and the cost of putting them in is greater in figure 4 than figure 5, 
although the two systems drain equal areas of land. 

OUTLET. 

The success or failure of many drainage ditches is very often dependent 
upon an outlet. (Plate V.) An excellent collecting system of tile drains 



158 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

is of no use whatever unless there is an opportunity for the water to get 
away. Therefore it is necessary to have the tile empty above the water line 
in the open ditch to which it flows. 

In flood times it is permissible to have the tile submerged. But per- 
manent submersion is injurious to any tile system. The submersion allows a 
sediment to collect at the mouth of the tile which will obstruct the passage 
of water. Also a slightly submerged tile will be damaged by freezing. All 
outlets should be protected by a concrete wall, a wooden box or by cementing 
three or four vitrified sewer pipes at the end. The common practice now in 
large drain tile is to make the last five or ten tile a vitrified sewer tile well 
cemented together and surrounded with a wire mesh and about six inches 
of concrete, thus forming a nozzle, as it were, at the end of the line. If the 
outlet ditch has a rapid-flow trap, it will be necessary to build a concrete 
deflection wall in addition. With this precaution there used to be no trouble in 
making permanent the outlet for the tile. 

SIZE, DEPTH AND GRADE OF TILE NEEDED. 

The amount of drainage depends upon the rapidity with which the water 
will pass through the soil and the kind of crops to be raised. In open and 
sandysoils, the drainage may be laid deep and far apart, but in heavy muck 
or clay soils they should be laid reasonably deep and close together. 

A study of the possible crops that will likely be raised on the soil is 
necessary in the design. Tile drainage may be laid from 35 to 300 feet apart 
and prove satisfactory. 

DEPTH TO LAY TILE. 

As a general rule tile have been laid too shallow. Three and four feet 
is the most efficient depth. In a loose sandy sub-soil, tile should be laid four 
feet deep and 200 feet apart or three feet deep and 100 feet apart. The 
exact distance apart will be determined more or less by experiment. In 
dense soil, such as clay soils, one should have the tile closer together than 
in the loam or sandy soil. Where the ground is level it is necessary some- 
times to have the tile as shallow as 2 l / 2 feet and in extreme cases, only two 
feet deep. Both of the last two depths are said to be shallow, but can- be used 
for a certain kind of crops. 

SIZE AND GRADE. 

The smallest size tile to use is four inch, which will drain a strip of land 
from 50 to 200 feet wide, depending upon the character of the soil. A four 
inch tile should not be used on a longer strip than eighty rods. The size of 
drain is difficult to determine, because it varies with the rainfall, slope and 
kind of soil. A table here is prepared according to a well-known formula to 
take care of %. inch of rainfall in 24 hours. 

Curves and junctions should be very carefully made. Branches should 
enter the main line at a sharp angle, say about 30° (see Plate VII), and if 
possible cut into the main line in the upper half of the tile. 



DRAINAGE 159 

Where the sod is tough, considerable labor is saved by plowing a furrow 
on top of the proposed course. The upper part of the trench can be done by 
day labor but the bottom should be done by an experienced man. 

CLAY AND CEMENT TILE. 

Clay tile should be well burned, straight, cylindrical and square at the 
ends. Cement tile should be well seasoned, straight, cylindrical and ends 
square. The test for quality is a sharp metallic sound when struck with a 
piece of metal. Either clay or cement tile is good for under-drainage, if each 
is made properly. The best to use is the cheapest one. Both kinds of tile 
are sold on the market at so much a thousand feet. They will over run in 
length so that a thousand tile will ordinarily lay more than a thousand feet. 
Do not accept a tile that is crooked, cracked or broken so as to interfere with 
the grade and free flow of water therein. 

Clay tile can be judged by their color as well as their metallic sound. 
The darker the color the better burned. 

There is no simple test for absolute quality of cement tile. To test 
cement tile observe carefully a broken section to see if it is dense like a 
stone. Also thoroughly dry it by heating and then dip in water for a few 
minutes and weigh again. If more than five percent of moisture has been 
absorbed, the tile should be rejected. In making cement tile a mix of not 
less than 1 :2 :3 should be used, especially where acidity or alkalinity is liable 
to occur. Cement tile which are improperly made will fail from contact with 
water where there is acid or alkali. 

TRENCHING. 

The trenching should be begun at the lower end and proceed upgrade. 
When the bottom has been brought to a proper grade and rounded out to 
fit the barrel of the tile, the tile should be placed as soon as possible so as 
to save redigging in case of a cave-in. The tile can be laid best by a man 
standing in the ditch, but they may be laid by a tile hook, shown in Plate VI. 
Where the joints do not fit up closely they should be patched with broken 
pieces of tile. At bends or junctions considerable care should be taken to 
cover all large openings with pieces of tile and in extreme cases tarred paper. 

In case there is any water in the bottom of the trench, care should be 
taken that fine sand or other debris do not enter the tile. When passing 
trees, sewer pipe should be used and the joints tightly cemented. 

BACK FILLING. 

Back filling should be made immediately after the tile are laid. If at all 
available, loam or sandy loam or other soil which is loose and open should 
be laid directly around the tile to assist the incoming water in reaching a 
proper outlet. Filling may be done by hand or with plow or with scraper. 
It is so easy to do with a team and plow that it would not pay for the 
average farmer to buy a special tool. 



160 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 




•PLATE V. Outlet ditch, showing how the dirt should be thrown back from a ditch! 

so that it can be leveled and" plowed. 




PLATE VI. — Laborer Laying Tile. 




PLATE VII. — A 4 "by 6 inch' 
k Y Tile. 



DRAINAGE 161 

BLASTING ROCK. 

When large rocks are encountered in the line of the ditch they should 
be dug out or blasted rather than to run the tile around them. Never under 
any circumstances run tile over the top of them, thus getting "back-fall" in 
the line. In blasting, dynamite is probably best. Insert a cap in the end of 
a half pound stick, attach 2 feet of fuse and fray the fuse on the end. Now- 
lay the stick on the top of the boulder in a depression, if possible, and seal it 
all up air tight with mud. Pack the mud with your hands and cover cap and 
all. Touch off the fuse, wait until it begins to sputter good, then get away. 
If placed right, a stick of dynamite should handle a boulder 3 feet in diameter 
easily. They are often blown within a few feet of the last tile laid, without 
damage. 

OPEN DRAINS. 

Open drains are necessary to carry off flood water. The farmer is in- 
terested in the small size particularly. These should be made wide and 
shallow so they can be sodded over to prevent erosion. A field which is 
completely underdrained needs only a few swails to carry off excess flood 
water. 

Large open drains are dug by dredges. The dirt should be removed as 
in Plate V. The county and state usually handle these on account of their 
size. 

COST AND PROFIT OF TILE DRAINAGE. 

By knowing the value of land, the character of the soil, the cost of tile, 
the average cost of digging the trench, and laying the tile, a farmer can 
generally answer the question which arises when he plans to put in a drainage 
system, namely, "Will it pay?" The price of the tile varies from year to year 
and in different localities. The size of tile to be used can be determined by 
referring to Table 1. 

Table 2 shows the cost per rod of digging the trench, laying the tile, and 
binding with four inches of earth. These prices are based on average con- 
ditions. When the subsoil is strong and sticky, making digging difficult, the 
price will necessarily be higher. It is assumed that the farmer will board 
the tilers. It will be observed that the cost of buying and laying four-inch 
tile three feet deep is about 75 cents a rod. There will be forty rods of tile 
for each acre if the laterals are four rods apart, or twenty rods to the acre if 
they are eight rods apart. Aside from the cost of the main, the cost of 
tiling on this basis will range from $15 to $30 an acre. 

DRAINAGE PROJECTS. 

The benefits of drainage cannot be better illustrated than by showing a 
plan of a drainage project that has been carried out, the cost of its construc- 
tion, and the benefits that farmers have derived from such drainage. 



162 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Figure 6 shows an area of thirty acres that was formerly an old lake bed, 
and practically level. Though it had been plowed once during a dry season, 
no crop had ever been raised. Dead furrows were provided to assist the 
surface run of water. The drainage of this bed was partly aided by an old 
ditch through the old lake bed. The entire cost of this system was about $16 

per acre of land benefited by the 
tiling. Three crops of corn were 
raised on this area in three con- 
secutive years. The crop aver- 
aged a little better than sixty 
bushels of shelled corn per acre, 
according to a statement by the 
owner. The yield of the last two 
seasons exceeded this amount. 
The flat land can now be worked 
earlier in the spring than some 
of the surrounding upland. 




G»*-* v «*' 



Scacs »r Ma* 
•— • 'IQRoos 



TO DETERMINE THE 
VALUE OF DRAINAGE. 



C*>urte» et the Wisconsin Experiment Suiloo 



To determine the value of 
tile drainage a number of ques- 
tions must first be answered. 

1. The value of the undrained land, the character of the soil, cost" of 
the tile, the average cost of digging, expense in laying the tile. 

2. Does it have an outlet? 

3. What will be the value of the crop after draining? 

All of these can be accurately determined by ordinary observation and 
comparison with results under similar conditions. 

Cost of trenching and laying is shown in table No. 2. 



TABLE No. 2— DEPTH IN FEET. 



Size of Tile 


3 


4 


5 


6 


4 inches 


$0.30 


$0.50 


$0.80 


$1.25 


5 inches 


.35 


.55 


.85 


1.30 


6 inches 


.40 


.60 


.90 


1.35 


8 inches 


.45 


.65 


.95 


1.40 


10 inches 


.50 


.70 


1.00 


1.45 


12 inches 


.55 


.75 


1.05 


1.50 




Nothing less than 4-inch tile can be used and these should be used 
sparingly. Five-inch are better and do not cost much more. The prices 
given in table 2 are only average and presume that the farmer boards and 
lodges the tiler. 



DRAINAGE 163 

CONCLUSION. 

A typical example of drainage is illustrated on page 162 . The writer is 
acquainted with the particular piece of ground, 120 acres, which before drain- 
ing had not raised over 15 bushels of corn to the acre, which, two years after 
draining with proper cultivation, raised 70 bushels to the acre. 

Men of broad experience who have observed drainage conditions all over 
the United States assert that in their wide experience they have never known 
a case of drainage, when properly done, to fail to bring profit to the investor. 
An annual profit of 20 to 60 percent can confidently be expected, where the 
drainage was seriously needed. The fact that there are numerous instances 
where the soil was of no value at all until drained, and became very valuable 
afterwards is conclusive proof of necessity of drainage. 



IRRIGATION 

Introduction. — Irrigation in the United States is fast becoming one of the 
most important branches of our engineering and agricultural work. Up to 
1910 a total of 31,112,110 acres of land of the United States was subject to 
irrigation projects. Over 13,000,000 acres were actually in crops and the rest 
was irrigable. About three and one-half percent of this acreage was irrigated 
by pumped water, the rest from streams and reservoirs. 

Acts of the Government of the U. S. 

The early settlers were allowed to irrigate in most any way they pleased. 
The most favorable plots for this kind of work were picked out where water 
could be secured by merely diverting from a stream or natural lake. As 
soon as these first areas were all taken up and it was necessary to attack the 
problem on a much larger scale, the U. S. government stepped in and offered 
its help. The result was the "Carey Act". This act provided that the state 
receive 1,000,000 acres of public domain to be parceled out. The state could 
install the irrigation system itself or sublet the work to contractors. The 
farmer contracted to occupy the land six months after the water was available 
and at least 20 acres of each 160 acres had to be under cultivation within two 
years after the occupation of the land. A further provision was made that 
the land could not be sold in larger tract than 160 acres nor smaller than 
40 acres. This was to prevent speculation. The water rights must be secured 
from the party who installed the irrigation system. 

The Reclamation Act. — In 1902 the government stepped in again and 
offered still further opportunities in the field of irrigation when the "Reclama- 
tion Act" was passed. This act permits the setting aside the proceeds from 
the sale of the public land for the purpose of surveying, constructing and main- 
taining irrigation works for the storage and diversion of water for use on arid 
land. This created a large fund in the Treasury which was immediately put 
to use and several projects are now under way or complete under this law. 
The Reclamation Service has charge of the water rights until a Water Users' 
Association can be formed. Under this act more than 3,000,000 acres of land 
are either constructed or projected for irrigation. Practically all of them are 
in the western districts. 

Water Rights. — As previously stated the early settler had to select a favor- 
able piece of ground and divert such water from stream or lake as he needed. 
Sometimes he was careless and because he had plenty of water would allow 
too much water to flow, even to the detriment of his crops. As more settlers 
came in, competition increased or the demand for the water increased, and 
certain laws had to be made to regulate the use of water. In some states 
it has become a criminal offense for the water user, during periods of water short- 

164 



IRRIGATION 165 

age, to change the head-gates in any way after they had been regulated by the 
water commission. 

The original owners and the first users of the water along the stream 
have "prior rights" over those who appropriate water at later dates. A prior 
right is like the ownership to land. It gives the owner eternal right to a cer- 
tain number of miner's inches or cubic feet of water called for in his title 
before any subsequent user along the stream. 

These prior rights are valuable pieces of property or like well located 
pieces of property become very valuable. Most cases are decided by the 
courts as first, second and third in accordance to the size of the stream. 
Certain times of the year, during flood water, those holding second or third 
rights can get any amount of water that they may need. An intelligent 
irrigator, who understands irrigating during flood water seasons, will practi- 
cally manipulate the irrigation and often times raises a better crop than his 
neighbor who has prior rights and has land wet all the time. 

Unfortunately the legislation has been different in each state. When 
there is a question in regard to the water, it is best to confer. with lawyers 
who are specialists in irrigation law, or with the irrigation officer of the 
state. This should certainly be done before buying any irrigated land. Where 
the Federal Government has taken up the irrigation of the land, the law 
concerning ownership and control is much simpler. If available, the buyer 
should consider these opportunities first. The Government has done a 
great deal of irrigating, yet it comprises only about 30 percent of what has been 
done. Individual and co-operative enterprises have taken care of the rest. 

When purchasing from a company or the Government, it is the practice 
now that the company or Government will take care of all water rights and 
convey them in the deed so that the buyer will not have to worry about this. 

In recent years many localities in humid climates are being irrigated with 
a great deal of success. It is the opinion of the writer that before many years, 
irrigation in all parts of the United States will be quite common. There is 
never a season in humid climates but what some parts of the territory have 
been injured by drought and other parts by too much water. Just as scien- 
tific drainage will take care of too much water, so will scientific irrigation take 
care of too little water. 

Water Values. — There is much more land to be irrigated than there is 
available water to irrigate it. Unless some other source is discovered, it will 
be impossible to convert all the land which needs irrigation into arable 
land. Wherever there is a supply of water, the number of water users has 
grown so rapidly that the demand is becoming acute, although the irrigator 
has been called upon to be very economical in his use of water. In other 
words he must watch the losses of water. 

Water may be lost in the following ways : , 

1. By seepage and evaporation from the conveying canals and ditches. 

2. By deep percolation into the soil on the farm. 

3. By evaporation of soil moisture. 

4. By surface run-off or waste at the ends of fields or furrows. 



166 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

5. By unequal distribution due to poor manipulation. 

Under these conditions it is just as important that the irrigator knows 
exactly how much water he is going to need as the power user needs to know 
how much electric current he is using. Where water is sold by the cubic 
foot or in definite measured quantities, the irrigator is paying for just what 
he gets and no more, and will use more care and skill to get the greatest 
results from the supply. When water is plentiful and cheap, he is likely 
to become careless and will waste the water, which might have been retained 
and conveyed to some other irrigator, who has second or third right and 
there do much more good. 

Over-irrigation will not only be wasteful but will destroy the productive- 
ness of the soil through water-logging or the accumulating of alkali salts 
in the surface soil. 

Sources of Irrigation Water. 

Gravity sources of supply have been taken up by the early settlers in 
irrigated regions and the possibility worked out' by the owners of the land so 
that it will be unnecessary to discuss that phase in any length here. The 
buyer in those regions would merely have to learn the practice of the present 
owner to become thoroughly familiar with the possibilities of the land and 
the water supply. Some of the newer problems will be taken up in this 
discussion and especially those in the humid and semi-humid climates. There 
are still some opportunities for using stream water in the west on the gravity 
supply. These entail such large expenditures of capital that it would be out 
of reach to the individual farmer and out of the field of discussion in this 
work. Where considering the source of supply, it must be particularly borne 
in mind that enough water can be secured at the time when it is needed. ' So 
many make the mistake that when they visit the property to be irrigated, 
they do so out of season and if they find a large quantity of water available 
they are quite well satisfied. Unless the water can be stored and made 
available at the time it is needed, the source may be of no value whatsoever. 

Streams. — Streams that are useful for irrigation must have sufficient 
flow at the time when water is needed and must be so located that water can 
be cheaply obtained from them and let over land to be irrigated. When the 
fall is steep, canals should be run at a light grade long distances up stream 
and the water carried down to the land below at a considerable height above 
the land. When this can be done it is very satisfactory. However, pumping 
systems are fast coming into use and are found to be satisfactory and profit- 
able. 

Not only should there be a proper quantity of water but of the kind 
necessary for irrigating purposes. 

Springs. — In a few favored localities springs offer a valuable source 
for irrigation, but in most cases the springs are not large enough to give 
a supply fast enough to irrigate. In this case a storage basin should be pro- 
vided. The water in an irrigating canal should run at a good speed. 

Storage Reservoirs. — In large reclamation work the storage reservoir 
has been probably the best means of serving the water for irrigation pur- 



IRRIGATION 167 

poses. In smaller projects, owners have gotten together and built reservoirs, 
some of them improperly constructed. With the services of competent 
engineers they would have proved very satisfactory. The average farmer 
should not attempt to build such a basin without the advice of one who is able 
to design such work successfully. 

Pumping Plants. — These plants are coming in use more and more every 
year. In certain parts of western Texas, irrigation is carried on entirely 
from a pumping station. There is a large supply of water underlying the 
ground and so far seems to be inexhaustible. The land in that region will 
be quite valuable. With the development of the gasoline and the oil engines, 
cheap methods of pumping and irrigation have become quite profitable. 

In pumping from a stream, water should be first carried to one side 
through a small channel into a sump or well. The pump should be sub- 
merged so that it will always be primed. The size of the pump should be 
such that it keeps one irrigator busy. Automatic alarms or tell tales can be 
so installed as to indicate whether the water is being pumped at full capacity 
or not. If the distribution is through ditches it is easy to measure the 
water by automatic alarms or tell tales made by connecting the moving 
part of an electric switch with a float on top of the water in the weir box. 
When the water goes too low, the float will drop and open the switch or close 
it as the operator desires, or it may ring an electric gong. Flags that may 
be pulled from the vertical to horizontal position have been attached. 

Wells. — As in western Texas, there are many localities in which there 
is an ample supply of underground water. This may be obtained by drilling 
wells. It is best to put the pump below the surface of the water as in the 
sidecut of the stream so that priming will be unnecessary. 

In the selection of the pump, the farmer should consult the best engi- 
neering advice he can and study over the different kinds so that he may buy 
the best pump for the particular piece of work. Some pumps are good for 
low lift and are no good at all for high lift. Centrifugal pumps are very effi- 
cient when properly placed at the source. When they can be so placed they 
should be given preference. It is the duty of the engineer to judge which 
would be the best. 

Power. — No matter what kind of power is going to be used, whether 
gas, steam, electric or water power, in most cases the problem is too complex 
for anyone but an engineer to solve. However, the widespread use of gas 
and oil engines seems to indicate that some form of power from this source 
should be depended upon. 

Conservation of Irrigating Water. 

As before stated, irrigation water is becoming so valuable that greater 
interest should be taken to conserve its supply. After the water is once 
secured, the matter of saving it is an important topic. 

Storage Reservoir Losses. — Storage reservoirs are usually built from 
the natural earth by constructing large embankments and enclosing an area 



168 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

sufficient to hold the required amount of water. Most reservoirs have not 
been made of water-tight materials. Wherever concrete can be used or the 
reservoir located in a rock basin, leakage will be at a minimum. In earth 
embankments, concrete core walls, and clay puddle walls are used to cut off 
the leakage of the water. 

Canal Losses. — Canals, like reservoirs, will loose through leakage and 
evaporation. In large canals, the loss is about one percent a mile and from 
farmers' laterals it is from ten to twelve percent a mile. A canal carrying water 
heavily laden with dirt, will deposit some of the fine material and seal up the 
pores, thus reducing the losses considerably. It is good practice to line the 
canal with any fine grained material which will tend to make a tight surface. 
The most effective and permanent material yet found is concrete. This is 
expensive and is only used in the larger projects where a great amount of 
money is invested and permanency desired. 

Value of Different Ditch Linings for Protection from Seepage. — In 1906 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the California Experiment Station 
investigated a number of linings with the following results: 

1. An asphaltum oil, applied on the ditch sides and bed, using three gallons 
per square yard, will stop from 50 to 60 percent of the seepage. 

2. A clay puddle lining, well constructed, is equally as good as the oil. 

3. Cement mortar lining about one inch thick, made of one part cement 
to four parts of sand, will prevent 75 percent of the losses by seepage. 

4. A concrete lining, three inches thick, made of one part cement, two 
of sand and four of gravel, will take care of 95 percent of the seepage. 

5. Timber lining, when new, is as efficient as a concrete lining, but in 
a few years, repairs and maintenance increase the cost so as to make it im- 
practical. The life of timber lining is eight or ten years. 

6. Rubble masonry, made of river boulders set in lime and mortar and 
pointed with concrete, makes a costly but efficient lining. 

7. A heavy lining of river boulders and cobbles set up in forms and 
cemented with cement mortar is the highest type but is expensive and is 
used only under the most favorable conditions. 

Cost of Lining. — Oil lining costs about J / 2 cent per square foot when oil 
is 2 cents per gallon. Cement mortar lining costs from 2 cents to 4 cents a 
square foot. Concrete lining 3 inches thick costs from 6 to 8 cents per square 
foot. Clay is cheaper than any of these if it is available on the site. But its 
competing with other methods depends upon its availability. 

Of all the linings that have been tried, the concrete lining seems to be 
the best and should be considered first when a permanent lining is being 
planned. The other methods should be adopted only for temporary pur- 
poses. When concrete linings are used, there is no trouble due to weeds 
or burrowing animals, no breaks to mend, therefore the cost of controlling 
and maintaining is very low. In most projects it does not take a very great 
amount of saving in seepage to pay the interest on the cost of a concrete 
lining installed to prevent it. 



IRRIGATION 



169 



The above losses are usually aken care of by a co-operative company or 
the larger controlling interests, but often the losses in the farmers' laterals 
run very high and are the ones in which he is most interested. As indicated 
before losses in laterals may be from ten to twelve percent. Farmers, too, 
should use concrete lined ditches whenever possible, especially for his 
main distributing lines. Gates can easily be constructed in the sides of the 

concrete flumes to let the 
water into each lateral. 
This is a distinct advantage. 
The ease in operating the 
controlling gauge, makes 
equal distribution possible 
when using a channel lined 
with concrete. 

Field Losses. — Field 
losses of water are many 
and some of them are 
peculiar to the kind of dis- 
tribution methods used. The 
method that is most econom- 
ical is the distribution of 
water through an overhead 
pipe system. These are now 
used only in highly favored 
regions, where land values 
are very high and the soil 
is very fertile. However, 
they are being used success- 
fully. The writer believes 
that in humid climates, where droughts are frequent, this class of irrigation 
system will be adopted by the individual farmer to taike care of the garden 
crops and will, in time, gradually be increased to take care of the field crops. 
The losses of water in the field are tabulated as follows, according to the 
causes : 




A Currugator or Furrow Plow. This is used for making the 
small furrows or ditches when the furrow system of irrigation 
Is used. The implement is adjustable both as to the depth 
and the spacing of the furrows. 

Courtesy of the Montana Experiment Station. 




Section showing water in furrows between potato rows 

Showing Furrow Method of Irrigating Potatoes. The arrows indicate the direction taken by 

the capillary water. 

1. The climate. 2. The different kinds of crops. 3. The kind of soil. 
4. The method of applying water. 



170 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

The last is probably the most inexcusable loss. These losses may be 
due to an excessive amount used owing to the greediness of the farmer, ill 
prepared land, improper and unequal distribution, or finally due to the 
fact that the farmer has not studied his problem properly. For that farmer 
who reads and studies his problem thoroughly, continued success is certain. 

5. After the water is applied, it is just as important to till the crop 
properly as to have the water, for if the waer is run on and left without 
any attention, the top soil will become crusty and the water will evaporate 
rapidly. Various farming methods will remedy this. In semi-humid or humid 
climates, the farmer should begin by irrigating a small patch, and, after a 
few years of experience, he can extend his plant to cover some of the 
smaller crops, always studying his problem and conferring with his neighbors 
in order to get the results of experience. 

Conclusion. — In the more careless methods of irrigation 40 percent may 
be lost in conveyance, 15 percent by deep percolation, 10 percent by soil evapo- 
ration, and 5 percent by surface run-off, a total of 70 percent. 

Where the water is valuable and a more expensive construction is pos- 
sible, these losses may be reduced to 5 percent for conveyance, deep percola- 
tion about 8 percent, evaporation can be reduced to 8 percent and surface 
run-off loss can be eliminated so that the total losses for the best plan would 
be 21 percent, a result well worth considering. 

Measurement of Water. 
In the larger project of irrigation the measurement of water is taken care 
of by the company selling the land, so for this purpose alone it will hardly 
be necessary to discuss this phase of the problem. Since the systematic 
use of all his resources is a valuable asset to the farmer, he will want to 
supply the water to his crops according to a measured amount, therefore one 
or two methods will be given. 

Units of Measurement. — Although the miner's inch has been used con- 
siderably in the west, another term is becoming more familiar year after 
year. For the average man, the cubic foot per second will probably be the 
most valuable as well as the most accurate. A cubic foot contains 7^2 
gallons, therefore a source giving 1 l / 2 gallons per second of time would 
have a discharge of one cubic foot per second. A flow of one cubic foot per 
second will cover one acre one inch deep in one hour. Therefore the time 
in hours to cover a given tract of land with water from the available water 
supply to a depth of one foot is equal to the number of acres multiplied 
by twelve and one tenth and divided by the number of cubic feet of water 
per second flowing from the source. The measurement of the flow from the 
source is not to be considered. 

The Cippoletti Weir. — A weir is nothing more than a notch in a board 
through which the water flows and when the depth of the flow through 
this notch is known, the quantity flowing can be accurately determined. 
This is the most accurate and cheapest of all methods and at the same time 



IRRIGATION 



171 



very convenient for irrigation purposes. The Cippoletti Weir was invented 
by an Italian of that name. The notch is shown in the sketch (Fig. 1) with 
the proper dimensions and instructions given. The description should be 
strictly adhered to, in constructing the weir. Note particularly that the 
slope of the sides is one inch in four, that is, if the length (L) at the bottom 
is ten inches, (H) height at the side four inches then (EF), width at the 
top should be equal to ten plus one plus one or twelve inches. Any size 
may be constructed on this plan. See that the edge of the weir from the 
side (H) and the bottom of the notch or the crest of the weir, as it is called, 
is some distance from the side of the ditch or flume supplying the weir. 
Table 1 is here printed to give the size and capacity of various weir boxes 
as shown in Fig. 1. 




Figure 

Weir Box 



It is best to have some kind of a weir box or flume so that the water 
can be properly controlled previous to falling over the weir. Since the irriga- 
tion is to be continued for some time it is always better to make a permanent 
box. 

Details of Construction. — When possible, set the weir in concrete and 
construct the weir box on the approaches of concrete. See Figure 1, for 
sample weir box. 



172 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Observe the following rules : Make the channel above the weir straight 
and long enough to allow the water to approach the weir at right angle 
and without eddies or cross currents. 

Bring the water as nearly as possible to a state of rest above the weir 
by widening the channel into a lake or pond and by deepening the channel 
for some distance above the weir. 

Make the distances from the edge of the weir to the sides of the stream 
of the proportion shown in the sketch. 

The water should fall freely over the weir and meet with no obstruction 
until it has reached the bed of the outlet. 

Make the weir notch beveled to a knife edge on the upstream side, the 
beveling or cutting away being on the loAver side. (See Fig. 2, 3.) The 
crest of the level and the weir board should be vertical. 

The length of the crest L (Fig. 2) should be such that the depth will 
be not more than one-third of its length. 



TABLE I 



WEIR DIMENSIONS 



Dimension L 


A-B 


C-D 


E-F 


G-H 


L 


I-H 


Apron 


1 -foot weir 


48 in. 


12 ft. 


16^ in. 


18 in. 


1 


ft. 


9 in. 


2x12 in. 


1 Yi-i oot weir 


60 in. 


12 ft. 


23 M in. 


21 in. 


IK ft. 


10K in. 


2x12 in. 


2 -foot weir 


72 in. 


14 ft. 


30 in. 


24 in. 


2 


ft. 


12 in. 


2x12 in. 


3 -foot weir 


90 in. 


16 ft. 


42 % in. 


27 in. 


3 


ft. 


13K in. 


2x12 in. 


4 -foot weir 


108 in. 


16 ft. 


55 Y 2 in. 


30 in. 


4 


ft. 


15 in. 


2x12 in. 


5 -foot weir 


128 in. 


18 ft. 


68K in. 


34 in. 


5 


ft. 


17 in. 


2x12 in. 


6 -foot weir 


144 in. 


18 ft. 


81 in. 


36 in. 


6 


ft. 


18 in. 


2x12 in. 


7 -foot weir 


156 in. 


20 ft. 


93 in. 


36 in. 


7 


ft. 


18 in. 


2x12 in. 


8 -foot weir 


168 in. 


20 ft. 


105 in. 


36 in. 


8 


ft. 


18 in. 


2x12 in. 


9 -foot weir 


170 in. 


22 ft. 


117 in. 


36 in. 


9 


ft. 


18 in. 


2x12 in. 


10 -foot weir 


184 in. 


24 ft. 


129 in. 


36 in. 


10 


ft. 


18 in. 


2x12 in. 


15 -foot weir 


222 in. 


24 ft. 


189 in. 


36 in. 


15 


ft. 


18 in. 


2x12 in. 



The distance from the crest of the weir above the channel should be 
twice the depth of the water flowing over the weir. The distance from the 
end of the crest to the sides of the weir box should be about twice the depth 
of the water on the weir. 

In measuring the depth of water passing over the crest, the level of the 
water in the pond or lake will have to be known in respect to the level of 
the crest. To determine this a stake (Fig. 3) is driven in the lake or pond and 
the water brought to the level of the crest and the stake marked. Then the 
water is released and as it raises on the stake in the stream above the height 
on the crest of the weir will be equal to the number of inches raised above the 
mark. There are a number of devices on the market for doing this very 
accurately. One is the hook gauge. 

If the weir is improperly constructed or maintained there will, of course, 



IRRIGATION. 



173 



.' ■ • 


■ " >-::T 




•---?— 










■ 












,' \ ■ 












Homemade J-Og. Ditcher.* 1 *? -'Th'e'V'slope "of ilio'- front i« 
- Ihue givinc, 'a smooth " ditch. The "plank w inBS cm 
leaving it 'hard, smooth' nnchijrni. ( .'>::■-■ tin M :'■< 




174 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

-a — -" -i 

r 




Mefol-Faccd Weir Board 




Measuring H 



F i qare 3 

Right way 




Wrong wajj 



Fioure 4 



IRRIGATION 



175 



be errors in measurement of water. The device is so simple it will not be 
necessary to discuss those errors. As soon as it is found to be out of condi- 
tion it should be immediately corrected. There should be no mistakes in the 
measurements of the water. Figure 4 shows improper construction, the stake 
having been left out. 

Determination of Flow. — To compute the flow of water in cubic feet 
per second over a Cippoletti weir: 

Let Q equal the cubic feet per second, L the length of crest of the. weir 
and H the head of water, measured in feet on the crest as described in the 
previous paragraph. Then Q equals 3.336 L H 3 ; 2. The table is here com- 
puted from the formula and will be found more convenient for the average 
irrigator. This table handles up to ten cubic feet per second. Over ten cubic 
feet is more than one irrigator can handle. This will irrigate one acre to a 
depth of one inch in six minutes. 



TABLE No. 2 
DISCHARGE OF CIPPOLETTI WEIRS 12 to 60 INCHES LONG IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND- 
COMPUTED FROM FORMULA Q^=3 3C7LHVj 



Head, H 












Length of weir 


[,, lnel^ 


cs 












In. 


Ft. 


J2 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


22 


24 


36 


48 


00 


Vi 


042 


03 


.03 


.04 


04 


04 


04 


04 


04 


04 


06 


06 








% 


052 


04 


04 


.05 


05 


05 


06 


06 


06 


07 


07 


.08 


H 


.15 


19 


% 


062 


05 


05 


06 


06 


07 


07 


.08 


08 


.08 


.09 


.10 


.15 




20 


.25 


Va 


073 


07 


.08 


.08 


09 


09 


10 


.10 


11 


.12 


.13 


.13 


.19 




25 


.31 


1 


083 


.08 


09 


09 


.10 


11 


.11 


12 


13 


13 


.15 


.10 


.23 




30 


.38 


1H 


094 


.10 


11 


12 


12 


.13 


14 


.15 


.16 


.17 


.18 


.19 


.27 




36 


.46 


IK 


104 


.11 


12 


13 


14 


.15 


16 


17 


.17 


18 


.20 


23 


.32 




43 


.53 


\% 


115 


.13 


14 


15 


16 


.17 


.18 


20 


.21 


22 


.24 


20 


.37 




49 


.61 


VA 


125 


15 


16 


18 


.19 


20 


21 


22 


.24 


.25 • 


.28 


30 


.42 




56 


.70 


\% 


135 


17 


18 


.20 


.21 


.23 


.24 


25 


.27 


28 


31 


„33 


.47 




63 


.79 


V4 


.146 


19 


21 


.22 


24 


25 


.27 


28 


.30 


32 


35 


.38 


.53 




70 


.88 


iy* 


156 


21 


23 


24 


.26 


.28 


.30 


.31 


.33 


35 


.38 


.42 


.59 




78 


.98 


2 


167 


23 


.25 


.27 


29 


.31 


.33 


34 


.36 


38 


.42 


.46 


.71 




94 


1 18 


2J4 


188 


27 


.29 


.32 


.34 


.36 


.38 


41 


.43 


45 


.50 


.55 


.84 


1 


12 


1 39 


2H 


208 


.32 


35 


.37 


.40 


.43 


.45 


.48 


.51 


53 


59 


64 


.97 


1 


30 


1 62 


2% 


229 


.37 


.40 


.43 


.46 


.49 


.52 


.55 


.59 


02 


68 


.74 


1.11 


1 


48 


1 86 


3 


250 


.42 


.46 


.49 


.52 


.56 


.60 


.63 


.66 


70 


77 


.84 


1.26 


1 


68 


2 10 


3K 


271 


.47 


.51 


.55 


.59 


.63 


.67 


.71 


.74 


78 


86 


.95 


1.42 


1 


89 


2 36 


3H 


292 


.53 


.57 


.62 


.66 


.71 


.75 


.80 


.84 


88 


97 


1 06 


1 58 


2 10 


2 03 


3% 


312 


.59 


J 64 


.69 


.74 


79 


.84 


.88 


.93 


98 


1 08 


1 17 


1 74 


2 32 


2 90 


4 


.333 


.65 


.70 


.76 


.81 


.87 


.92 


97 


1 03 


1 OS 


1 19 


1 29 


1 92 


2 55 


3 19 


4l< 


354 


.71 


.77 


.83 


.89 


.95 


1.01 


1 06 


1 12 


1 18 


1 30 


1 42 


2 09 


2 79 


3 49 


4V 2 


375 


.77 


84 


.90 


96 


1 03 


1 09 


1 16 


1 22 


1 28 


1 41 


1 55 


2 27 


3 03 


3 79 


4H 


396 


.84 


.91 


98 


1 05 


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FARMING AS A BUSINESS 

The methods of modern business have made such wonderful changes in the 
living conditions of today that it is impossible for the farmer to isolate himself 
on his little kingdom, the farm. Formerly he was accustomed to raise what food 
he needed and manufacture what few tools were necessary. He disposed of 
his excess products to the city man for cash, thus remaining independent of the 
rest of the world. Much of this is changed. The introduction of factory made 
tools and machinery, factory made clothes and factory prepared food has brought 
him in close touch with the manufacturer. The competition for land has also 
increased so that the farmer must make the best use of what he has in order to 
keep up with his neighbor. He is in the same position as a manufacturer, and must 
use manufacturing methods. 

Heretofore the farmer has considered money only as his capital. Some have 
considered their land as capital, which is true. We quote T. N. Carver, of the 
United States Department of Agriculture, who says : 

"There is no mystery about credit or capital. Capital consists of tools and 
equipment, though sometimes we speak of it as though it were the money necessary 
to buy the tools and equipment. Capital and land are the factors which call for 
investment by the farmer. Thus the large use of capital in farming has come be- 
cause of the invention of agricultural machinery. When farming was done with a 
few very simple tools, most of which were made either by the farmer himself or by 
the local blacksmith, capital did not play a large part in agriculture. Another way 
of saying the same thing is that it did not then take so much money to buy all the 
equipment the farmer needed or knew how to use. The purchase of land was the 
only thing requiring much money, and land, in this country, was either free or 
very cheap. Therefore, there was very little money required to start in agriculture. 
At the present time, not only is the price of land rising, but the equipment of a farm 
requires more capital because of the increased use of improved machinery. This is 
likely to increase more and more as the years go by." 

"Capital is brought into existence in only one way — that is, by consuming less 
than is produced. If one has a dollar, one can spend it either for an article of 
consumption, say confectionery, or for an article of production, say a spade. He 
who buys a spade becomes a capitalist to the amount of a dollar — that is. he becomes 

176 



FARMING AS A BUSINESS 177 

an owner of tools. The process is precisely the same, whether the amount in ques- 
tion is a dollar or a million dollars. If he does not have the dollar, his only chance 
of getting the spade is either to borrow it or borrow the money with which to 
buy it. That is, he must use credit. Again, the process is precisely the same, 
whether the amount be a dollar or a million dollars." 

The problem of the farmer today is to meet these new conditions in a 
businesslike way, which will put him on an equal footing with the manufacturer 
who uses business methods, instead of considering his farm as a gift of nature, 
he should give it a value of so much capital and make it pay interest as well as 
profit. There are many farmers today who are living on the interest of their 
investment rather than on the profits of their farm. The new farmer will 
receive interest on his capital as well as wages for his labor and profit from the 
enterprise. 

The successful farmer today therefore must take up some method of business 
administration. Scientific management and business efficiency is the rule in facto- 
ries, railroad shops and large business houses everywhere. Farming is the largest 
business in the world, and there is no reason to believe other than that it would yield 
to the same method of treatment. Now that farming is to be considered as a 
business and deserves systematic order of administration, the discussion will 
proceed to the development of these methods. 

Business Methods. 

The first essential to business methods is a record of all transactions, values, 
and labor which occur throughout the year. It is not necessary for the farmer to 
have an elaborate system of bookkeeping. The kind of a record to be kept will 
be illustrated with such simplicity that any farmer will be able to handle it. The 
main thought is to keep track of the gains and losses of the business, so that each 
loss may be met at the proper time, and where possible, made into a gain. The 
beginner is cautioned not to begin too elaborate a system the first year. The out- 
line given will assist in getting started and give the basis for a more elaborate 
system as the user becomes accustomed to making up records. One year of its 
use will be sufficient to prove its value. The farm record may be divided into eight 
divisions. The first four are called the primary list and the second four the 
secondary list. The divisions are as follows : Inventory, cash account, pro- 
duction record, farm map, labor record, feeding record, household record, 
and seeding record. In making up a record of this kind it will be necessary 
to define more clearly certain terms. Definitions will be taken up in the order 
of the foregoing list. 



178 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Inventory. — An inventory is a tabulated list of the value of the farm, 
buildings, equipment and stock at a given time. Inventory should be made once a 
year. By means of comparison it can be determined whether the farm has been of 
profit or not. Such a list of property shows the total and itemized investment, 
the bills owed to and by the proprietor, and the net worth of the business. The net 
worth is the total value of all the property owned by the proprietor, plus the 
amount owed to the business, less the amount owed by the proprietor. The latter 
are known as bills payable, or what I owe others. 

A Sample Farm Inventory. 

In making out the inventory some of the items cannot be easily estimated as to 
value. Land should be given a reasonable value compared with that of the sur- 
roundings. Recognition should be taken of improvements such as tiling, ditching or 
clearing, etc. The value of buildings should be estimated at their original cost, 
giving a depreciation of three to five percent per year of their life. Machinery and 
tools are estimated in the same way. For large machinery that is used from year 
to year the depreciation is usually .from seven to ten percent. There are certain 
classes of tools, however, which only last one or two years, and should be de- 
preciated accordingly. Tools or buildings which have been repaired can often be 
brought back to their full value as new. This should be considered. 

Live stock and food supplies should be listed at their market value at the time. 
Live stock should be listed at so much per head, and feed as mentioned in the con- 
tainers, allowing for the cost of marketing. The cost of marketing will usually 
be three to four cents per bushel of grain, and $2.50 to $3.00 a ton for roughage. To 
find the number of bushels of ear corn in the crib, divide the number of cubic 
feet by 2 l / 2 , and for small grain divide by V/\. To find the number cf tons of 
hay, divide the cubical contents by 343 to 512, depending on the compactness of 
the hay. 

Bills Receivable or Bills That Others Owe Me. — It is very important 
that these bills be listed and constantly kept in mind. It is advisable to have 
some kind of notation to indicate those that are collectible and those that are not. 

Bills Payable or What I Owe Others. — Like the preceding item this is 
also an important matter to keep in mind. Not only should the amount be known, 
but the date on which it is expected to be paid. In this list will be found mort- 
gages, store bills, feed bills, interest, etc. It is essential to the credit of the owner 
that these be kept track of and attended to at the proper time. 

Cash on Hand or Bank Account. — Cash on hand and in the bank is a 
part of the investment, and should be listed in the inventory as such. 



FARMING AS A BUSINESS 



179 



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180 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



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■ 



FARMING AS A BUSINESS 



181 





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182 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



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FARMING AS A BUSINESS 



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THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



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FARMING AS A BUSINESS 



185 



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FARMING AS A BUSINESS 187 

Cash Account or Classified Cash Record. — A daily classified cash record 
should be kept in such convenient form that the incoming and outgoing cash can be 
compared easily. It is convenient to keep these in a book having on one side the 
incoming cash and on the other side the outgoing, balancing up at the bottom 
of each page and carrying forward the totals so that at the end of any day the cash 
standing will be known. By comparing the cash standing at any time with the 
result of the last inventory a gain or loss can be easily detected. 

A sample classified record book is shown. 

Record of Production. — A production record is a new thing to many 
farmers, but a suggestion as to its value is all that is necessary to bring about 
its adoption. For instance, the writer is acquainted with a farmer who put trap 
doors on the nests in his poultry house and thus he was able to catch the hens 
that were laying. These he marked with suitable coloring matter, and when the 
laying season was well advanced he picked up all of the hens that were not marked 
and sold them. Thus he was relieved of feeding non-producing fowls. This is 
work preliminary to keeping a production record. Following this a number of 
select hens were separated from the rest and an accurate record was kept of how 
many eggs each one laid. Eggs from those with good records were kept separate 
and used to produce the new flock. The excess of these eggs was advertised on the 
market as being those of especially good layers, and sold for a much higher 
price than the ordinary eggs. In a similar way the record of a sow, cow or horse 
may be kept and only those animals which are good producers retained. 

Not only should the product of the animal be kept but the amount of feed sup- 
plied to it as well. It is a well known fact that some animals have a more 
efficient producing machine than others, and the one that produces the most market- 
able goods for the least cost of feed is the one to be retained. 

Farm Map. — A captain of industry never enters upon a task without a 
plan or a map produced by the best engineering skill obtainable. As the farm has 
come to be a factory or a big industrial institution, it is necessary that the organiza- 
tion be carried on, to the minutest detail. The keeping of cash accounts, inventories, 
and production records will tell the operator where the money is being made 
and where lost. These records are of priceless value and will serve to cut off 
many leaks which otherwise would not be found. But a farm which is well planned 
in the ordinary sense, when put on paper might look quite different. In another 
section a number of plans are given to illustrate this point and to bring the 
advantages of farm planning directly home to the farmer. 

It is essential in the keeping of records, inventories, etc., to have a farm map 
which has been properly made with each part of the farm named or numbered in 



188 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



order to make the record systematic and easily understood. Therefore one of 
the first steps in modern business organization for a farm will be the production 
of a map giving the topography, drainage, houses, timber, etc. 

The Secondary Record. — Although the above records or the primary 
records are the most important and should by all means be well kept, the following 
or secondary record should receive some attention also. It is very hard to separate 
primary and secondary records and say which is the most important, because one 
depends so much upon the other. If the individual is limited in keeping records, 
he should take the primary first and later on add the secondary. 

Labor Record. — There is probably nothing more important on the farm 
at times, than the labor record. It makes a part in all the other records mentioned. 
The cost of labor constitutes from 30 percent to 50 percent of the cost of pro- 
ducing, since the labor on the small farm is so much varied, that is, so many different 
things are done in one day, it becomes a tedious process for a farmer to take care 
of it. He will often spend more time trying to keep the records than he will get- 
ting the work done. However, with a little grouping of the various duties the labor 
report can be made very careful, and the amount paid to labor divided among 
the various activities on the farm. A sarnnle of a monthly work report is shown : 

MONTHLY WORK REPORT 



Month of June. 


























Date 


Corn 


Wheat 


Oats 


Hogs 


Cattle 


Misc. 


Total 




Man 


Horse 


Man 


Horse 


Man 


Horse 


Man Horse 


Man 


Horse 


Man 


Horse 


Man 


Horse 


1 


5 


10 






20 


40 


tit 




4^ 




5 




36 


50 


2 


10 


20 






10 


20 


2 


3 




2 


2 


27 


42 


3 


9 


18 






9V 2 


19 


| 


IV2 


4 


4 


1 


24 


42 


4 






5 


10 






3 6 










8 


16 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


29 






























30 






























31 














1 














Total . . . 














1 















Of course to be very accurate in the above table, it will be best to take down the 
hours of men and horses at each task, which is not often necessary. This would 
only be used where a special study was to be made for a short time. If each 



FARMING AS A BUSINESS 



189 



day's labor of man and horse is apportioned to the proper enterprises as corn, 
hay, cattle, etc., without the description of the operation performed, it becomes 
more simple. 

REGULAR WORKER'S DAILY TIME SHEET 

John Jones 
Day of Week. Tuesday. Date, May 15. 



■ 


Kind of Work 


Man 


Horse 


Include Implements Used, No. of loads, etc. 


Field 


Hours 


No. 


Hours 


4.30 

5.00 












5.30 

6.00 


Feeding and. caring for horses. 




1 






6.30 


Breakfast. 










7.00 

7.30 
8.00 


Plowing Potatoes. 




IK 


2 


m 


8.30 

9.00 

9.30 

10.00 

10.30 

11.00 

11.30 

12.00 


Planting corn. 


S 


4 


2 


4 


12.30 

1.00 


Dinner 










1.30 

2.00 

2.30 

3.00 

3.30 

4.00 


Finished Planting Corn — South Field. 


S 


3 


2 


3 


4.30 

5.00 


Hauled two loads of Manure. 




1 


2 


1 


5.30 

6.00 


Care of Horses. 




1 






6.30 


Supper. 










7.00 

7.30 
8.00 












Workman Total Hours. . . 




Remarks 


Report O. K. 



In the figure shown, it is only necessary to keep the total number of hours done 
by all labor. Should any particular laborer, horse, or team deserve a careful study, 



190 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

a report blank can be made especially for that, giving the number of hours in day- 
opposite the days of the month. This of course would be much larger but would 
need to be used only for short periods. After the owner had become convinced 
of the efficiency of his man and horse power, .it works easily in the larger unit. 
The previous page shows the detail record kept by the laborer himself. These 
might be kept for a week at a time at various periods during the year in order to 
get a line upon how the man is using his time. This will not only be a benefit to 
the owner, but will be an education to the laborer himself. The latter record is 
used by many large farms and is a part of scientific management. 

Feeding Records. — Efficiency in feeding is as valuable, if not more valuable, 
in eliminating losses, than efficiency in handling labor or other productions on the 
farm. It is a matter of record that the farmer is making more per hour in the field 
than in the barn with his live stock. This would hardly seem true since the live 
stock are becoming more valuable in his absence and without his special effort, 
just the same as the crops in the field. If then it costs more to feed the live stock 
than to take care of plant life, feeding is a proper subject to study carefully. 

The animal machine is the most perfect machine the Creator has given 
us and if properly used will develop and reproduce unerringly. It is not only 
necessary to know what kind of food each kind of stock requires but how 
much and when. Food is given for two different purposes, one to produce 
work and the other to produce fat. In the book on feeding will be given the 
various classes of foods and the proper amounts to administer. An overfed 
or underfed animal is a loss not only because it does not grow properly but 
because of its liability to disease. Therefore it is important for the farmer 
to divide his stock up into various classes, those producing work and those 
producing food, and feed each kind of stock according to its wants and needs. 
This is possible only when a record is kept, and the condition, size and weight 
of the animal is closely watched and compared with the feeding record. 

Productive elements on the farm should show profit. The question will often 
arise what to do with the field crops, whether to sell them or feed them. The decision 
will depend upon the conditions of the market, capital available to buy stock, and 
the facilities for handling stock. All these items should be considered carefully 
before a decision is made. 

Household Records. — Many farmers try to separate the household 
management from that of the farm. This is practically impossible to do. The 
home is just as much a part of the producing machine as the barn or the fields. 
It must board and shelter the help. In many cases the housewife is able to assist 
in many of the duties about the farm and thus the home becomes a vital element 
in the producing machine. It is customary for the farmer to consider the housewife 
as a personal necessity for which no wages are usually assigned. For the same rea- 
son he forgets to give himself wages. This is not good business. In order that an 
accurate account be kept of the profit made on employment of labor, it must be 
known exactly what it costs. Unless the housewife's time is given some value, it 
will not be possible to learn what the labor really costs. Food, fuel and interest 
values on the equipment are easily determined. These should be accurately 
kept. 



FARMING AS A BUSINESS 



191 



Farm of John Jones. 



FARM PRODUCE 

Month, June. 



Year, 1917. 



Date 


Eggs 
Laid 


Poultry 
Used 
Lbs. 


Milk 
Used 
Qts. 


Butter 
Made 
Lbs. 


Eggs 
Used 














1 


47 


69 


9 


HM 


9 














2 


62 


34 


17 




17 














3 


39 


16 


32 


25M 


8 














4 
























* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


* 


29 






t 


















30 
























31 
























Totals. . . 

























The form given above makes it possible to enter a record every day of the 
month. This is always the best. If the individual depends upon placing a monthly 
record, so many little details will be forgotten. It is only when these are done 
daily that anything like accuracy is obtained. For short periods of time it may be 
interesting for the housewife to watch the feeding record of each laborer. How- 
ever, this could be done as a detailed study only at a time when other duties are not 
pressing. 

Seeding Record. — In figuring the balance for the year, it should not be 
forgotten to make allowance for seeding for the next year, or what would be better, 
subtract from the gross amount produced, the amount of seed actually used during 
the current year. When this is done, the net profit from the crop can be obtained. 

Summary of the Year's Record. — The value of the year's record will be 
immediately seen by the practical farmer, and when he compares the results of 
his various activities he will plan to do better the next year. However, he will 
not realize the full value of his records until he has kept them for two or three 
years. It is only by comparison from year to year under different conditions 
that the final plan of the proper procedure can be decided upon. Even the pur- 
chase of a new machine or a particular crop will change conditions so much 
from one year to the next that the previous year's record may be of little value. 
The farmer is warned against making yearly records or yearly balances from 
memory. These can only be accurately made from well kept records that are 
diligently kept up. 

The Definition of Income and Profit. — Incomes and profits are very often 
misunderstood and many times used interchangeably. In fact experts sometimes 
make these mistakes. The relations of the two terms will be illustrated by an 
example as follows : 

Assume $30,000 invested in a farm and equipment, and that the current 



192 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



rate of interest on farm loans is 5 per cent. Without any effort or labor on the 
owner's part this investment would yield $1,500 a year interest income, not 
profit. Presume the unpaid family labor was $400 and allow the owner for his 
time and executive ability $600, which adds another $1,000 and represents wage 
income and not profit. Therefore, the net income will have to exceed $2,500 in 
order to have any real profit. 

How to Figure Farm Profit. 

1. Take two inventories, one at the beginning and the other at the end of 
the year. 

2. Keep a cash account in order to show all expenses both personal and 
household, interest paid on indebtedness and cash on hand at the end of the year. 

3. Determine the value of the farm produce used in the household. The fol- 
lowing table will illustrate the method of calculating such profit : 



Item 



Farm inventory: 

Real estate 

Live stock 

Machinery and tools 

Feed and supplies 

Bills receivable . . . . 

Cash on hand and in bank . 



Total farm investment . 
Bills payable 



Net worth each year. 
Increase in net worth . 
Increase in net worth 



Cash account 

Personal expenses 

Household expenses 

Interest on mortgage of $2,000 

Total money paid out for other farm expenses during year. 

Supplies and rent: 

Supplies furnish 

Rent of farmhouse (its value to owner) 

Total supplies and house rent 



Total farm grain . 



Interest and labor: 

Interest on average of total farm investment of $19,953 at 

5 per cent 

Unpaid family labor (estimated) 

Owner's labor (estimated) 



Total interest on investment, etc . 
Actual farm profit . . 



April 1, 1916 



$14,500.00 

2,729.00 

475.00 

658.00 

46.00 

670.00 

$19,078.00 
2,000.00 

$17,078.00 



148.00 
420.00 
100.00 

100.00 



120.00 
180.00 



997.65 
300.00 
480.00 



April 1, 1917 



$14,500.00 

2,883.00 

461.00 

836.00 

2,148.00 

$20,828.00 
1,400.00 

$19,428.00 

$ 2,350.00 

2,350.00 



768.00 



300.00 
3,418.00 



1,777.65 
$ 1,640.35 



The above table may bring out several items that the average farmer has 
never considered. 



FARMING AS A BUSINESS 



193 



A Study of Each Enterprise. — Now that the total farm profits and the 
labor income have been determined, it is necessary to find out which activity pays 
best and what plan to follow for the ensuing year. Not much help can be taken 
from the inventory alone, but by going back and classifying the various items in the 
total number of records kept, certain enterprises may be studied in detail. A study 
of both kinds of enterprises should be made, i. e., of stock and crops. For con- 
venience tables are shown illustrating the proper form of each. 



CROP COST TABLE 



Crop 


Field 


Acres 


Man 
Labor 
Cost 


Horse 
Labor 
Cost 


Seed 
Cost 


Twine 
Cost 


Thresh 
Cost 


Total 

Direct 

Cost 


Assumed 
Land 

Rent per 
Acre 


Corn .... 
Oats .... 
Wheat . . 


A 
B 
C 


40 
30 
30 


$200.00 
55.00 
55.00 


$170.00 
75.00 
75.00 


$30.00 
50.00 
42.00 


$6.00 
6.00 


$30.00 
13.00 


$400.00 
216.00 
191.20 


$4.00 
4.00 
4.00 



Crop 


Direct 

Cost 

per Acre 


Total 

Cost 

per Acre 


Total 

Yield 

Bushels 


Yield 
per 
Acre 


Value 

Grain 

per Acre 


Profit 
per 
Acre 


Loss 
per 
Acre 


Profit 

per 
Bushels 


Loss 

per 

Bushels 


Corn .... 
Oats .... 
Wheat . . 


$10.00 
7.33 
6.37 


$14.00 

11.33 

9.87 


2400 

1200 

330 


60 
40 
11 


$30.00 

12.00 

8.80 


$16.00 
.16 


$1.07 


$0.27 
.16 


80.97 



DIAGRAM FOR ABOVE COST TABLE 



Cost Figure 

Field and Acreage . . . 

Labor Cost 

Seed Cost 

Twine Cost 

Threshing Cost 

Land Rent or Interest 
Yield 



Taken from 



Farm map or sketch. 

Labor record. 

"Seed Used" record or cash account. 

Cash account and twine inventories. 

Cash account — (Charge at the cost per bu. in figuring for each crop.) 

Cash rent or estimated rental value. 

Crop acreage and yield record. 



To be more accurate it would be well to include machinery, manure, taxes, 
buildings, charge, overhead expenses, etc., and also some credit should be given to 
the straw or anything of value left in the field. A live stock record would be kept 
as follows: 



194 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



CATTLE STATEMENT 






Average Number of Head, 32 Cows. 


Year 1916 


Average Number of Other Cattle, 19 Head. 




Decrease 
or Costs 


Increase 
or Receipts 


Opening inventory, 48 head 


$3,840.00 
4,320.00 


$1,236.16 
964.52 
112.15 




Closing inventory, 54 head 


$ 480 00 






Feed— Ground Feed, 54,500 lbs. at $1.01 cwt 

Silage, 86.8 ton at $3.00 


550.06 
265.79 
245.06 
11.25 
164.00 




Hay, 32.5 tons at $7.54 




Corn Fodder, 2.5 tons at $4.50 




Pasture 








Labor — 5,088 hours man labor at 17 K cents 

593 hours horse labor at 123^ cents 


890.40 
74.12 








Cash Expense — Stock 


100.00 
12.15 




Medicine 








Cash Receipts — Cream 


1,844.62 
870.00 
220.00 
150.00 




Stock 




Fed to stock 




Used in household. 


3,084.62 




Profit 




$2,312.83 
1,251.79 


$3,564.62 










$3,564.62 


$3,564.62 



All costs and receipts are not included. Some few are left out for the sake 
of simplicity. However, this will give a general idea to be worked out and will 
assist the owner in making every item on the farm pay. It is very important to 
know whether to feed the crop or to sell it, and this can be determined only by 
keeping such records as have been described. The owner who once tries this 
system will never quit it. 

It will be interesting for the farmer to go into more detail along several 
lines suggested in this chapter, for instance to study the cost of maintaining a farm 
hand or a farm horse, or the cost problem in a certain field. 

Most farmers will find this kind of work hard at the start. After being in the 
field all day long and becoming physically tired, book work is not easily done. 
However, it is worth a great sacrifice and should be attended to immediately after 
the supper hour, while the day's work is still fresh in mind. Some like the morning 
hours better. If a time can be taken so as not to interfere with the management 
of the help, it is a more desirable time. The mind and body are in better con- 
dition to do accurate work. 

It is worth all the time it takes and it is hoped that the suggestions made 
in these pages will go a long way toward putting the farm on the same industrial 
basis of efficiency, and scientific management, as our big factories are today. 



CO-OPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS 

The individuality of the American farmer is seldom shown so well as in his 
inability to co-operate with his neighbor. It has been said that rich people are 
smart, that is why they are rich. They are "smart" enough to understand the 
old principle, "United we stand, divided we fall." Consequently they will group 
themselves together and take advantage of co-operative bargaining and planning. 
For example, a group of wealthy people will buy a tract of land and build hand- 
some homes and live in considerable pomp for a few years, at the same time they 
will attract the "would-be rich" and sell the nearby properties to them for a hand- 
some profit. As soon as they have completed their sale they will quietly move on 
to new ground and repeat the process. This is not exactly a parallel case with 
the farmer, however, it is similar. Class the captains of industry, who by their 
"trust" methods are able to control the markets of the world, as the rich people 
spoken of above, then class the would-be rich and the poor people in the position 
of the farmer and you have somewhat of a parallel case. 

However, the farmers of today are gradually growing out of the old idea of 
extreme independence and individualism. The telephone, automobile and free 
delivery of the mail, have brought them closer together. They realize that their 
neighbors are human beings like themselves and that co-operative selling, buying 
and protection, will be a benefit to all. Thus the farmers are getting together in a 
more democratic spirit. 

In a number of the states successful co-operative organizations have been 
created. In the state of Minnesota, for example, they have their Co-operative 
Creameries, Co-operative Elevators, Co-operative Live Stock Shipping Associations 
and Co-operative Insurance Companies. 

The Co-operative Scheme. — The writer after reading the results of the 
organization and operation of these companies, suggests the following rules for 
guidance of those who wish to take up this work. 

1st. Call a meeting of all those who you think would be interested and would 
make good members. Notify them by postal card, telephone, or in person. The 
latter method is the best. 

2nd. At the preliminary meeting state the purpose of the organization as 
being strictly co-operative for the benefit of all. 

3rd. Effect a temporary organization and appoint a constitution and by-laws 
committee. 

4th. Give the report of the constitution committee. Elect new officers. 

5th. Adopt the constitution, engage a competent manager. Do not be 
afraid to pay the price necessary to get a good manager. A five-dollar-a-day man 
is cheaper than a three-dollar-a-day man for a job like this. 

6th. Adopt the one-man-one-vote policy. 

7th. Offer inducements to the non-member to become a patron. These 
inducements may be in the form of premiums or part dividends or both, but not 
to be as large as those the members receive. Let premiums to patronizing non- 
members pay on membership if you think it advisable. 

195 



196 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

8th. Loyalty to the organization is absolutely necessary, as the bitterest 
kind of competition is sure to come up. Those merchants and captains of industry, 
whom this organization will affect, are trained business men. They will lower their 
prices for the goods they are selling and raise the price of those they are buying 
temporarily, in order to cause dissatisfaction among the ranks of the co-operators. 
In this they will succeed, unless loyalty to the organization is beyond reproach. 
Do not be carried away by temporary inducements from an outside party, tho 
they may seem to be better than the association is offering. These are only traps to 
catch the unwary. Remember that the association can do business cheaper on a 
co-operative basis when each one helps to take care of a share of the general 
business, than can the merchant living in the city and paying rent on expensive 
property. 

9th. Do not fear losing. Make it win by working hard. If at first it 
does not succeed, investigate the organization and see if something is going 
wrong. 

10th. After having successfully worked out an organization along one line, 
gradually bring in others. Not only co-operative selling can be done, but co-opera- 
tive buying can be handled as well. 

Kinds of Co-operative Organizations. 
Creamery. — Dairy products call for creameries. These will oay when 
supplied by a large number of people and managed by an efficient organization. 
Elevators. — Farmer's Elevators and storage houses are indeed a great 
success. In 1914 one farmer out of every five in Minnesota owned stock in a 
co-operative elevator company. Their annual business aggregated $24,000,000.00. 
These organizations operate on the one-man-one-vote basis, which is the only way 
to get real co-operation in an organization. . 

"~ Co-operative Stores. — Co-operative stores in Minnesota in 1913 did more 
than $4,000,000.00 worth of business. Most of these stores were very successful. 
A few failed. The cost of doing business was 10.9%, which is lower than ordinarily 
privately owned stores. The one-man-one- vote principle prevailed in the majority 
of associations. 

Co-operative Live Stock Shipping Associations. — These associations in 
Minnesota do over $6,000,000.00 worth of business or more than one-eighth 
of the total live stock marketed by the Minnesota farmers. The association hires 
its manager, who takes the place of a local live stock commission man. He collects 
the small groups of marketable stock and sends them out in carload lots. The 
farmer is often benefited 5 to 10 percent by this method. A competent, reliable 
business manager is necessary. 

Insurance Companies. — Minnesota claims 154 township mutual insurance 
companies. The amount of insurance in force is nearly half a billion dollars. 
The cost is about 18 cents per $100.00, compared with 46 cents charged by stock 
companies. All of these policies are three-year contracts. This makes a saving 
in the one state of $20,000,000.00. 

Conclusion. — The above brief notes will give sufficient proof of the great 
benefits of co-operative associations. Every farmer should ally himself with 
one or more of these associations and become an active member in it. 



FARM PLANNING AND FARM 
ARCHITECTURE. 



Introduction. — The farm is a factory and the farmer is a manufacturer. 
The raw products are the land, stock and buildings. From the land he produces 
stock food, and then converts it into butter and eggs, beef or bacon, as the case may 
be The buildings are units in a great industrial plant. Considerable care should 
be exercised in placing and designing them to most conveniently take care of the 
needs. Light, ventilation, sanitation, attractiveness, and convenience are all to be 
considered in working out an efficient design for the plant. 

The Site. — The choosing of a farm site is a decision upon a permanent 
improvement, and should be made only after a very careful study. An efficient 
design will serve the farm for many years in the future, and it is necessary for one 
to have foresight into future conditions, in order that a most efficient site may be 
selected. First, a farm house should be set out in the open where it can get plenty 
of light and ventilation. A few shade trees are convenient and attractive. They 
should be placed where they will be most useful but not so close as to shade 
many of the buildings, nor should there be so many as to shut off proper ventilation. 
A southern slope is usually the best. Many desire a wind break on the north. 
This may be accomplished by the planting of an orchard, or selecting a site on 
the south side of a grove. 

A farm site may or may not be located on a main road. This is an important 
matter as to convenience, but it should not be the deciding one. All other properties 
should be considered and it will be found that light, ventilation and attractive- 
ness will easily overcome location near a main road. 

Very few realize the time lost in walking to and from the various buildings 
about the farm, to do the chores. The unnecessary walking of four hundred feet 
a day means over six miles a year, and also ten minutes a day going to and from the 
calf lot or pig pen will lose twelve 10-hour working days a year. 

When a man is hired to do this unnecessary walking it is obvious that the ex- 
pense is needless. Of all shapes of areas, the circle or the square is the most 
economical and compact. 

Architecturally the circle would be the better, but the square is the most 
convenient arrangement to be used. The buildings should be separated by short 
distances and arranged in a square so as to make the distance back and forth 
between them as short as possible. At the same time they should be far enough 
apart so that, in case of fire, an individual building may be isolated from the 
group. An economical distance for placing buildings is about a hundred to a 
hundred and fifty feet. When the farm is equipped with an excellent fire-fighting 
apparatus and a water supply, this distance may be considerably lessened. 

197 



198 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING - 

Location of Individual Buildings. — The locating of individual buildings 
is necessarily a cut and dry process. Lay out first a square into which all of the 
buildings are to be placed. Next, place them in some order that first suits the fancy. 
Draw a diagram showing the distance walked by the hired man when he does the 
chores. From this study, a number of improvements will be evident. (See 
figures 4 and 5). 

The farm house or the home is the dominant figure. Size of lawn and shade 
trees serve to show it off. Young people especially like attractive homes. One 
cause for large numbers of them leaving the farms is that they find more at- 
tractive places to live in the city. This can be offset by a little more care on the 
part of the farmer in making the country home as cheerful and convenient as pos- 
sible. Therefore, place the farmhouse in the most desirable position, and build a 
rectangle or square of adjacent farm buildings back of it or on the leeward side 
from the prevailing winds. It is desirable to send the odors from the barns and 
poultry houses away from the homestead. 

Conclusion. — The farmstead should have good light, good ventilation, 
good drainage, accessibility, water supply, economical arrangement and archi- 
tectural beauty. 

Designing the Large Units. 

In the study of designs of the farm the whole area should be seen at a glance. 
This can be done only by making a sketch on paper. On this sketch should be shown 
such natural conditions and culture as would effect the location of the farm- 
stead. There are a few simple principles in the location of this important part 
of the farm as will be illustrated by the following figures : 

Figure 1 shows the farmstead in the center of the farm. This brings all 
of the fields in close relation to the center of activity and management. This is 
a great time-saver and lends itself to the hard-working individual who does 
not care to be near the public highways where his attention may be attracted at 
any moment. Figure 2 shows a similar arrangement with the farmstead in the 
middle of one side next to the highway. This is probably the better location since 
the enjoyment of life is more often the association with one's neighbors in 
addition to getting so much work done. Also the products of the farm may 
be better advertised by having the farmstead where it can be seen. The 
farmer's family usually objects seriously to being secluded from the road and 
oftentimes such seclusion will lead to a final dissatisfaction and encourage 
the young people to leave the farm. 

Figure 3 shows a more intensely developed farmstead with the home near 
the highway and lanes leading to the various fields. This is a very neat and 
compact arrangement and it will be found to be a good pattern after which 
to copy. Often the topography will not permit an exact copy of this arrange- 
ment, but the idea can nevertheless be used in many locations. 

Proportions. — Farmsteads for 160-acre farms should cover five or six 
acres and if made as shown in figure 2 may be surrounded by a number of small 
fields used for calf pastures, hog lots, etc. Those areas which require daily visits 
on foot should be arranged close around the farmstead in order to save time in 



FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 



199 



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200 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



going to and from them. The larger fields should be reached by lanes, which 
in most cases need not be fenced except on one side. 

Details of the Design of the Farmstead. — Figure 4 will show a poorly 
arranged farmstead. Note the distance between the buildings, the great distance 









Field U 
4.82. Acres 



N 

A 
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Field M 

482 ACRES 



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the laborer will have to walk going from one to the other to do the ordinary chores. 
Calculating the average round trip made daily to serve the various functions or the 
various duties with this arrangement, over 250 miles would be traveled in one year. 
This would require 15 to 18 days of ordinary walking to accomplish. 

Note the rearrangement of the same problem in figure 5. The scheme worked 
out here reduces the daily trip so that in one year's time about 30 miles is traveled 
which would require a little over two days. With a little more improvement with 
regard to the placing of water, electricity, and other conveniences much more of 



FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 



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THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



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FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 203 

the daily labor of the farmer can be eliminated. These few designs are offered 
as examples and inspiration to further study and improvement. The idea is 
so simple and the needs so great, that few farmers should be unable to be 
benefited. 

Note the regularity of all of the fields. Oftentimes the topography will not 
allow such arrangement. Whenever possible the drainage should be so made and 
the land cleared, that, as far as possible, the fields may be kept regular. Circular 
or angular fields are hard to till or plant. Short rows, requiring so much time to 
turn at the ends, are more expensive than long rows. Long narrow fields 
would be the most profitable. 

Farm Buildings. 

Having planned the farm as a whole, so that the larger units will be closely 
related. The details of the farmstead will now be taken up. 

The location of the buildings has already been explained so that the types 
which are most economical are to receive our next consideration. 

The Dairy Barn. — A dairy barn must be both sanitary and convenient. 
It is hardly necessary to say why we should have clean milk and sensible handling 
of the stock. Milk is such a rich food for bacteria that most any form will rapidly 
multiply when coming in contact with it. Several disease germs may con- 
taminate the entire milk supply, which, after being distributed to a city, would 
cause untold suffering and misery to hundreds. With modern science, the 
source of such contamination can easily be detected. Not only should the 
farmer desire to protect his friends from such injury, but he should protect 
his business. 

Although the barn should be kept sanitary, it is impossible to keep it in such 
a condition that milk may be stored in it. Therefore, the milk should be taken from 
the barn as soon as possible. The milk house and dairy barn should be separate. 

Amount of Air for Animals as Follows: 

For horses 71. cubic feet per minute per head 

cows 59. cubic feet per minute per head 

swine 23.2 cubic feet per minute per head 

sheep 15.3 cubic feet per minute per head 

hens 524 cubic feet per minute per head 

If air travels 200 to 300 feet per minute in a flue, a 16 x 24 flue will have 

16X24 

=2.66 sq. ft. 

149 
or will accommodate 
2.66X300 

= 11 horses. 

71 
It is hardly necessary to describe these barns in detail. In the chapter on 
concrete, many of these details have already been shown. Note particularly the 
high ceilings both in the dairy barn and in the loft. This is a necessary form in 
proper ventilation and economy in building. 



204 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

DAIRY BARNS 




loft plan. 





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FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 205 

Ventilation. — The cow is an animal which is accustomed to outdoor life, 
and when brought in the stable she can never be kept under perfectly normal 
conditions. She must have pure air to remain in a healthful state and withstand 
the ravages of tuberculosis. 

For the principles of ventilation by means of flues see figures 6 and 7. 

This system is very successful and operates on the principle that warm air is 
lighter than cool air. Animal heat from the cow will start the circulation and by 
arrangement of the flues and inlet as shown, there will be no drafts. It is very 
necessary to prevent colds, which might later on result in tuberculosis. 

Lighting. — There is probably no other fault so common in a barn as poor 
lighting. Sunlight is nature's best disinfectant. Sunlight will kill any germ 
known, within ten minutes. Therefore why not admit this great cheap disin- 
fectant to the barn every day ? Make the windows at least six feet high and con- 
tinue them along the whole side of the barn. Designs of stalls giving dimensions 
will be shown under concrete. There are many steel designs of stanchions, 
pens, etc., on the market that may be had by consulting any farm journal 
'advertisement. 

In connection with the dairy barn there are two very important accessories : 
the silo and the manure pit. Both are amply illustrated in the chapter on Con- 
crete. 

Silo. — A word concerning silos. Every farmer is familiar with the 
methods of putting up his own food for winter by preserving in cans that can be 
hermetically sealed. Only recently the same idea has been brought to use for the 
stock. The silo is the result. It is nothing more than a large can in which the 
green food is cut and placed, and so long as this is well tamped in and kept free 
from the air, just the same as preserves, it will ripen and be preserved almost in its 
original flavor. 

Materials of Which Silos are Made. — Silos have been made of almost all 
kinds of building material ; tile, concrete, stone and steel. The silo is a permanent 
structure. It should be considered as such when purchased. Such materials as 
timber, which are light and hard to maintain should never be used except as a 
temporary expedient. While there are a number of excellent types of timber 
silos on the market, some of which have considerable merit, their only advantages 
are usually their cheap first cost. The capital required to invest in building 
a good silo of concrete or tile should be easily borrowed by the progressive 
farmer. Indeed it is a safe investment in the hands of one who knows how 
to use it. Good engineering advice will say that nothing but the most per- 
manent material should be used. These are cheapest in the end. 

Very few farmers are able to handle a structure as large in proportion as 
the silo. Usually the best way is to let the building of it by contract, as there are 
many experts on the market who can build them cheaper than the farmer himself. 
It is a poor banker who will not lend money to build a permanent and profitable 
structure like a silo. It will be found safe and in most cases economical to borrow 
the money to put up this very valuable structure. 



206 • THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 




Fig. C — Best method of ventilating an ordinary stable The intake flues, constructed In 
I he side wall, or if stone, brick or concrete is used, as in Figs. D. 10. 11 The ventilator 
tlues. CE. will take up space occupied by two cows, but they will be found more efficient 
than a single flue. They should have their lower openings at or near the floor level and 
rise 2 or 3 feet above the ridge of the roof, or an adjoining roof. These flues may be 
constructed as shown in Fig. 12. or lined with very light galvanized iron Caps may ba 
placed over these flues or cowls as shown in Fig. 6. The latter will be found more 
satisfactory. 

Courtesy of the Wisconsin Experiment SlatloD 




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FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 



207 



Below is a table to indicate the size to buy for silo construction. The second 
table gives the comparative silos of various dimensions and will be valuable in esti- 
mating the value of the contents. Third table gives quantities for concrete silo. 



Table No. 1. 

CAPACITY OF SILOS OF VARIOUS DIMENSIONS 





Inside Diameter of Silo in Feet 


Depth of 
Silage 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


Feet 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


Tons 


25 


36 


52 


68 


96 


122 


136 


173 


206 


28 


40 


61 


81 


108 


137 


160 


205 


245 




44 


68 


90 


115 


150 


180 


226 


270 


32 


50 


72 


95 


126 


162 


200 


248 


295 


34 


53 


77 


108 


142 


171 


223 


269 


313 


36 


57 


82 


114 


158 


194 


230 


290 


341 



Table No. 2 
RELATION OF SIZE OF SILO TO SILAGE TO BE USED DAILY 





Silage 


Acres of 


SIZE OF SILO 


Silage 


Acres of 


SIZE OF SILO 














for 180 


corn at 






for 240 


corn at 






of 




15 tons 


Inside 


Depth 


days at 


15 tons 


Inside 


Depth 


cows 


30 lbs 
per day 


per acre 


diameter 


of silage 


30 lbs. 
per day 


per acre 


diameter 


of silage 




Tons 


Acres 


Feet 


Feet 


Tons 


Acres 


Feet 


Feet 


14 


38 


2 to 3 


10 


26 


50 


3 U>3'A 


10 


32 


15 


40 


3 to3H 


10 


28 


54 


3H to4 


10 


33 


20 


54 


3H to 4 


12 


26 


72 


4<A to 5 


12 


32 


25 


68 


4 to5 


14 


26 


90 


6 


14 


31 


30 


81 


5 to 6 


14 


28 


108 


7 to& 


14 


34 


35 


95 


6 to 7 


16 


26 


126 


8 to 9 


16 


32 


40 


108 


7 to 8 


16 


28 


144 


9 to 10 


18 


29 


45 


122 ' 


8 to 9 


18 


26 


162 


10 to 11 


18 


32 


50 


136 


9 to 10 


20 


26 


.180 


11 to 12 


20 


30 



Table No. 3. —AMOUNT OF CONCRETE MATERIALS FOR COMPLETE SILOS OF VARIOUS DIAMETERS (INSIDE) 
These figures include footings and floor, but not roof. Walls 6 inches thick. Continuous doors 2H feet wide. Figures are for 



barrels of cement and cubic yards of sand and gravel. 






























8 Ft. Diameter 


10 Fi 


. Diameter 


12 Ft. Diameter 


14 Ft. Diameter 


16 Ft. Diameter 


18 Ft. Diameter 


20 Ft. Diameter 






























OF 

Silo in 


a 




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so 


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§ 
6 


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00 


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O 


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o 


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O 


00 


to 


§ 
6 


oo 


& 


20 


16.5 


10.2 


21 


6.5 


13.0 






























22 


17.9 


5.5 


11.0 


22.7 


7.0 


14.0 
































24 


19.2 


6.0 


12.0 


21.5 


7.5 


15.0 


29.6 


9.1 


18.2 


























26 


20.5 


6.3 


12.6 


26.1 


8.0 


16.0 


31.7 


9.8 


19.5 


























28 


21.9 


6.7 


13.4 


27.1 


8.5 


17.0 


33.8 


10.4 


20.8 


39.8 


12.2 


24.4 




















30 


24.2 


7.1 


14.2 


29.7 


9.0 


18.0 


35.9 


11.0 


22.0 


42.3 


13.0 


26.0 




















32 








31.2 


9.6 


19.2 


37.9 


11.6 


23.2 


44.7 


13.7 


27.4 


51.3 


15.9 


31.8 














34 








32.9 


10.1 


20.2 


40.0 


12.2 


24.4 


47.1 


14.4 


28.8 


54.3 


16.7 


33.4 














36 








34.6 


10.5 


21.0 


42.1 


12.8 


25.6 


49.4 


15.1 


30.2 


57.1 


17.5 


35.0 


64.8 


19.9 


39.8 








38 








36.4 


11.1 


22.2 


44.0 


13.4 


26.8 


51.9 


15.8 


31.6 


59.8 


18.3 


36.6 


67.9 


20.8 


41.6 








40 








38.1 


11.5 


23.0 


46.2 


13.8 


27.6 


54.3 


16.5 


33.0 


62.6 


19.1 


38.2 


71.0 


21.7 


43.4 


79.4 


24.3 


48.6 


42 














48.3 


14.7 


29.4 


56.7 


17.3 


34.6 


65.3 


19.9 


39.8 


74.1 


22.6 


45.2 


82.9 


25.3 


50.6 


44 














50.3 


15.3 


30.6 


59.2 


18.0 


36.0 


68.1 


20.8 


41.6 


77.2 


23.6 


47.2 


86.3 


26.4 


52.8 


46 














52.4 


15.9 


31.8 


61.5 


18.7 


37.4 


70.8 


21.6 


43.2 


80.3 


24.5 


49.0 


89.8 


27.4 


54.8 


48 














54.4 


16.5 


33.0 


63.9 


19.4 


38.8 


73.7 


22.4 


44.8 


83.5 


25.4 


50.8 


93.3 


28.4 


56.8 


50 














56.5 


17.1 


34.2 


66.3 


19.9 


39.8 


76.4 


23.2 


46.4 


86.6 


26.3 


52.6 


96.7 


29 ■> 


59.0 



Note. — For simplicity the amounts given above apply to silos with continuous doors. If intermittent doors are used, slightly 
greater amounts of material will be needed. The above table is based on a proportion of 1:2:4 for the walls and l:2M:5for the floor 
and footings. 



208 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



The Cattle Barns. — The beef cattle barn differs materially from the dairy- 
barn in its principal features. The purpose of a beef barn is for protection 
and the economical administering of the feed. It has been proved that cattle 
without any protection from weather will grow and fatten just as well as with 
protection but with this exception, that they require more feed when exposed 
to the weather than when protected. Therefore it is economical to have pro- 
tection. 



CLE MVir, C Al LC Y 



A 



( 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 I ] I 

t i i i i i i m r~ri [ 

I 3 I, 



Ci.£A/V//VC ALLCiy 



FLOOR PLAN 

Sc*ll~ i n rr. 



1 




?-ts ft5 



CNB SECTION 




BARM FOR BEEF CATTLE 




Fi«. 9 — An Outdoor Feeding Rack 



FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 209 

The Horse Barn. — The design of a horse barn is very much like the 
design of a house. Each person has his own taste. However, a few samples will 
be given, which, after a little study, will be noticed to be about as efficient as 
could be suggested. 

Note Figure 10. It has a separate vehicle room which is away from the 
stalls so that the varnish will not be ruined by the fumes. Stalls are placed 
along the south side where they can receive plenty of window space and 
sunlight. 

The floors are all of cement, which is both durable and sanitary. The stalls 
slope one inch in six feet and are roughened to prevent slipping. 

Combination Barn. — On small farms it is often necessary to build the 
barn in combination since the amount of capital is not available to build two separate 
units. Figures 11 and 12 well illustrate these types. 

The Hog House. 

Hog houses may be made in two general ways, permanent and movable. The 
permanent must be made of such materials and in such a way that it can be 
easily cleaned. The temporary is moved about from place to place for sanitation 
and isolation. The permanent hog house is the better and should be followed by 
all who own their farms and expect to raise hogs as a business. For the renter 
or one temporarily engaged in hog raising the movable is the better. 

The Permanent Hog House. 

Location. — The location of the hog house is very important from the 
standpoint of sanitation, ventilation, light and convenience to the homestead. It 
is better to place it on a south slope to get the light so hog wallows will not be 
possible. Wallows are unsightly and disease breeders. 

Design. — Figure 13 shows an ideal plan for a combination hog house. 
A blueprint is shown to bring out the details as well as the form of construction and 
arrangement. Swing doors lead from the alley to the pen. In one corner is a 
plank platform 4' x 4' with a railing of gas pipe on the side adjacent to the wall. 
The gas pipe is arched six inches above the floor and far enough away from the 
wall so that a small pig will have room to pass. It will prevent the sow from lying 
down and crowding the small pigs against the wall. A panel over the trough is 
swung from above so that the pigs can be kept out until the slop is poured. The 
windows should face the south to get the best light ; also the outside door should be 
on the south side. The floor slopes toward the center alleyway where the excess 
water can be taken care of and will be inaccessible for the hog to lie down in 
and form a wallow. 

It is best to have the floor in a hog house made of cement, something that the 
hog cannot root up or render it in any way unsanitary. 

The small overlaid platform which is usually placed in one corner is neces- 
sary to prevent hogs from getting rheumatism, which may follow after lying on 
a .cement floor. The overlay should always be ventilated, and therefore it must 
be raised above the floor at least two inches, better four inches. 



210 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 











iSTA 


ICiS 











Hay Doo/f 
i 1 



HaRH£SS 

Room 



Plate fro t8 



Df? i very a y 



2n 



Ha v Door 



— &LRILZB-— _ _ — 



: >i 






i ^±£0. --^^if^—j^kb J-. 



Box 3 



A 



TALL6 



HORSE BARN 



\Scau er Plan 




Fig. 10 

Courtesy of tne North Dakota Experiment Station. 



FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 



211 



D 



D' 




CATTLE BARN 



scalc //v ft: 

M ■ ■ ■ ■ \ 

o s 10 




HORSE O LE 




Fig. 11 



Courtesy of North Dakota Experiment Station. 



212 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 





CAT ILL 



SOX 

ST/\LL 



ORI V£WAV 
H O KSE-S 



>>/h*>/JN^,*/h^dNdw 





FLOOR PLAN 



HORSE £r CATTLE BARN 



H 



chvTQ 



Chotc 




Sc a l c in rr 




6/LO 



> 




Z 






Sin,/ 












X&/iV 








CHVT/T 


r- I. 
* * 



LOFT PLAN 



Fig. 12 



Courtesy of the North Dakotu Experiment Klatluu 



FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 



213 



S ^s 




214 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



The Farrowing Pens. — A sow must never be allowed to farrow on a 
cement floor, since the little pigs are liable to be pushed on to the bare cement and 
take cold and die of the chill and exhaustion. Special pens should be built for 
farrowing, constructed as shown in figure 14. Note how the corners are blocked to 
keep the sow from crushing her litter against the wall. 

In general the hog house should be made substantial. The walls should be 
made air-tight, and the roof water-tight and durable. Plenty of sunlight and 
air should be admitted. 

The Temporary or Removable Hog House. 

The Wisconsin Experiment Station gives a blueprint, figures 15 and 16, of a 
movable hog house that is adjustable to any size. These houses may be moved from 




Fig. 14 — Corner of the Farrowing Pen 

Courtesy of the Wisconsin Experiment Station 



season to season to a new pasture, leaving the old to be completely disinfected by 
air and sunlight. This is considered by the best authority to be advisable. Also 
the manure from the hog lots will be distributed over different areas and be better 
used. The figures show very clearly how these removable houses are made. They 
are made very cheaply by any farmer. 



FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 



215 




Q'-O'- 
Fig. 15 — Front Elevation of A-Shapcd Hog House 




Fig, 16 — Rear Elevation of A-Shaped Hog House 



216 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Hot weather is the greatest enemy of the hog. If he is not provided with a 
cool wallowing place he looks for shade. In fact, a hog prefers a shady place 
and if given the option he will take it rather than the wallow. It is a mistaken 
idea that the hog pen must be provided with a filthy hog wallow. With sanitary 
hog quarters, cholera would be unknown. 




f.b'Bumrl 



Fie. 17 — Frame of A-Shaped Hob House 
Courtesy of the Wisconsin Experiment Station 



The Sheep Barn. 

Sheep barns like other stock barns should be on high and dry ground and 
have plenty of sunlight and ventilation. However, sheep are very particular and 
dainty about their eating, and therefore must be provided with clean floors, clean 
mangers, and clean food and water. An earth floor will be satisfactory if it is 
kept dry and clean. 

Partitions. — Partitions between the pens are made readily movable. A 
separate space should be provided for weak and disowned lambs. 

Doors. — All gates and doors should be made wide, as the sheep are sure 
to crowd. 

Feeding Racks. — Always feed the sheep out of doors if possible, and 



FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 



217 



only in the very worst weather take care of them with inside racks. A feed rack 
with slats one foot apart will be sufficient. Remember the rack must be cleaned 
often or the sheep will not eat. 

Pens. — Since the wool is a very valuable part of the sheep, the pens 
should be kept dry and clean or the fleece will become ruined. 




" ">^>>-^ x " 



^FTT^--^ **«!!!Ep^^=fs! 




FLOOR PLIKN 

SCAL£ IN FE£T 



SHEEP BARN 

PLATE NO. /9 



Fit;. 18 

Courtesy of the North Dakota Experiment Station 



218 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



1 ; *l. — ".'.v.. •>•• 




Fig. 



21— A Well Constructed Floor for 
i Poultry House is shown above 



The Poultry House. 

Considering the price of poultry and eggs on today's market, there is no 
excuse for neglect of the proper design and building of the poultry house. Too 
often it is only a shed against the bam or wood house, and scarcely ever offers any 
light or ventilation, being only a shelter and a poor one at that. 

The Location of the Poultry House.— The site of the poultry house 
should always be on high and well drained land. If no high land is available 

it must be on tile drained land. A wet 
muddy yard is a poor place to raise fowls. 
Like the location for the farmstead, it 
should be on the south slope, where it can 
get plenty of sunlight and warmth. Chick- 
ens should be kept in the poultry yard and 
poultry house. It is poor practice to allow 
them to live anywhere about the barn or wood shed, for in this way they 
become a nuisance. 

Like the hog house, there are two classes, the permanent and the movable 
chicken house. The permanent will be discussed first. 

The Permanent Poultry House. — A blue print from the University of 
Wisconsin Experiment Station, figures 19 and 20, will give an idea for a first 
class chicken house. 

Like the hog house, the floor of the chicken house should be made of con- 
crete. Not only is the concrete floor the most 
durable and sanitary, but it is rat and vermin 
proof. This is a very necessary requirement. 
The walls should be made of cement or 
wood, preferably of wood, as this is not 
so cold in the winter time. The house should 
be made tight on all sides, and ventilation 
brought about systematically so there will be 
no draft. 

Follow the blue print carefully and the 
most desirable form of chicken house will 
result. Note the abundance of windows. 
Face the chicken house to the south so as to 
get full advantage of the rays of light, as the 
sun is the best and cheapest disinfectant. 

Ventilation.— The best type of ventila- 
tion for a chicken house is the open window. Make the opening on one side of the 
building, so there will be no draft. 

Partitions. — In long poultry houses where partitions are necessary it is 
advisable to make only a part of the partition solid, and the' rest of it with 
chicken netting. 

The Roost. — The roost should be constructed as shown in figure 24. 
Note the dropping board below. This makes for sanitation and convenience. 




£X£* 



S^B^gS 







Fig. 



24 — Hinged Perches and Dropping 
Board 



FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 



219 




Y/ak*-J7 '~*y+J '-Hh%J '-H K-JJ7-»'*/7W'IK- J7~-*A\*J '-H^J '-^HKJ/'Hrrtfl 



Fig. 19 — A two-pen laying house for a small flock. A cross section 
is shown below. 



^— S' 










Cfl 



Figure 20 — Cross section of two -pen house shown above. 



220 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 




COVER 



BODY 



iLi-J—j- ,1 ■ t -L-L ,.!.. ,' I '.i , ,i, , ! ,i .,1 ,,i ! i. ,-L. 



5-o 



Fig. .22 — Working Flans of h Single Indoor Hopper 
Courtesy of the New Sort Bwiawni Statfcs, Corneal. 




Fig. 23 — The End View of Grit Hopper, Showing 

Method of Construction 
!' Courtow of too Now York Experiment Station, Cornell. 



FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 



221 




A. 




)"/o ><> ^ t L >m '.' 9 L o "/S ? 



Fig. 25 — Different Types of Nests. A is a Tier of Nests with Broody 

Coop on Top. B and C Are Types of Wall Nests. D Is a 
teonsm EiKMrcem swim Nest Under the Dropping Board 



222 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



The dropping board should be laid on the bracket so it can be removed if 
necessary for thorough cleaning and disinfecting. 

Nests. — Figure 25 shows the proper design for single and multiple nests. 
Some of them should be fitted with doors in order that the laying hens can 
be trapped and marked, thus weeding out the non-producers from the flock. 

Feeding and Watering Devices. — Figures 22 and 23 show feeding devices 
that are on duty all the time. The same styles may be used to contain grit. 

The Removable Chicken House. 

There are some advantages in the removable poultry house over the 
permanent type, especially that they can be changed from place to place 
and render the location more sanitary. The old location is disinfected by 
sunlight and air. Such a house is shown in figures 26 and 27. It will be 
noted that these houses are quite small, and for large flocks several of them 
must be made. It makes feeding rather difficult, but the health and vigor 
of the flock will more than pay for the difference. 

The Brooder. — Figure 28 shows a brooder house which is portable and 




Fie. 28 — A Brooder House 

Courtesy of tiie Wisconsin Kxperiment Station. 



a necessary part of successful poultry raising. Young chicks should never 
be fed along with the older ones. They will stand no chance of getting their 
share in the competition that will result. 



The Granary. 

The average farmer perhaps does not store his grain very long. As soon 
as the harvest season comes he markets it. However, for the man who owns 
his farm it is becoming the practice to store it and hold it for higher prices. 
For the farmer this is a good practice ; for the public it is sometimes 
disastrous. 



FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 



233 



'I 



.,-A,-, 



i 






=d 










, 






Fig. 26— A Small Flock Movable Laying House 




DO DO 

DO 
Pou/try 

o a t d 

Mouses 

ao a a 



a a d a 

IF 
o o a o 



d a 
a o 



a a 
o D 



Fig. 27— A System ©f Rotation Is Possible With Portable Colony 
Houses. The Houses Can Be Moved Each Tear to a Different Field 

Courtesy of the Wisconsin Experiment Station 



224 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Site. — The site of the granary should be near the barn or feeding pens, 
so that the trouble in filling and emptying will be as small as possible. The 
trips to and from the granary should be as short as possible. When they are 
used to store the excess grain, the location is not important. 

The Design. — There are four common types of granaries: One-story, 
two-story, the metal, and the elevator. The one- and two-story types are 
nothing more than a simple building with four walls and a roof, into which 
the grain is placed by hand after harvesting. The cost of filling and empty- 
ing such a granary is expensive. 

The metal type is made in a factory and costs from eight to twelve cents 





XTah. cr S/n jiijxj 




A Fig. 29 — A Good Type of Farm Granary for Average Sized Farm, 
showing arrangement of a simple elevator for handling grain 

Courtesy of the MfiffiesOUT&Peflmeht Station - 



per bushel capacity. It comes knocked down but is simple of construction and 
can be erected without expert advice. It has several advantages. It is mouse 
and vermin proof, movable, and effective. 

The fourth type, or the elevator granary, represents the highest develop- 
ment. In this type the granary room is placed in the second story and is 
served by an elevator, which is in turn operated by a gas engine. As many 
up-to-date farmers have gas engines, this would be a very practical design. 



FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 225 

Figure 29 shows an excellent plan designed to carry 3,700 bushels on the 
first, floor and more than 2,000 on the second. The figure shows well how 
the apparatus is made and placed. 

Construction. — The principal dimensions of the building are 22' x 32', 
with 12' height of the first story. The elevator pit is 3 feet below the surface 
of the ground and 5 feet below the first floor. It is set in a concrete lined 
pit. The elevator is 22 feet long and 10" x 22" on the outside. The unloading 
spout A is 8" x 10" outside measurements. All other spouts are 6x6 inches. 
The main pulleys on the side of the elevator are 12 inches in diameter with 
an 8-inch face. All other pulleys have a 4-inch face. The diameter is regu- 
lated by the speed of the engine. This can be calculated from instructions 
given in the chapter on engines. Of course, the elevator may be made 
proportionally smaller, if so desired. 

The cost of this, elevator is very little compared with the value. 

Conclusion. — An improved grain storage is like an improved piece of 
machinery. It adds to the convenience and saves the farmer considerable 
time and protects his crops. With this means of handling grain by machinery 
he is able, during his leisure hours, to clean the grain and get a higher price 
for it. 

The Potato Warehouse. 

Potato warehouses are a necessity in communities where large quantities 
of potatoes are raised for foreign market. 

• Requirements for Design. — Potatoes should be stored in a room which 
is maintained at 34 degrees fahrenheit. To accomplish this the house must 
be well protected from the weather and easily drained. It is best to set 
the house into the ground as far as the water table permits, perhaps a little 
above that, and then bank up the sides almost to the eaves. 

Avoid the artificial heat if possible, as it is hard to distribute it evenly 
and if not so distributed it will overheat some of the potatoes while others 
will be freezing. To maintain an even temperature the walls should be 
insulated with paper or felt. 

The arrangement should be very convenient, since potato harvesting 
must be done mostly by manual labor as no machine has been invented 
to date that will not bruise and otherwise injure the product. There are 
three particular types of potato warehouses which are commonly used : the 
combination cellar type, and the above-mentioned ground storehouse. 
The combination cellar type is exactly like the root cellar which will next 
be described. 

An excellent plan of potato warehouse is shown in the several sketches, 
from the North Dakota Experiment Station. 

Plan. — Figure 30 is of the basement type. The operation is readily 
understood. Note the doors in the gable end through which the chute 
extends to unload the crop. In the center is a scale where the' potatoes are 
weighed just previous to being loaded on the cars through the side door 
placed in the gable of the dormer. The driveway along the sides may be 



226 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



rr-Tj ,.", ->,.f. ■•. ' ■ ' .- ■ ..■■ ' ■', ■ ■■..-,--. ■ •■ !- ' ■■:■ ■'.■: ;-'.■.■■ ' . ' ■ '. ■■ ' . . .:: •/■■.■'. ' /■V?'.-''. •■<■ J-,-- - v-Vv^i^iii^V^ V !.' ^■•;^ ^ 7 7T7 7 
i. y-' -f • C • ii' ' r» * a ■ n i ■ '« v 'u 'n ' '» n n »' ii ii n ii • i i ' ii i ii i i i i ii 'i n n n , i ii: 



Plan or Ba 





MftH',WWi-J:*c-y:A'.-.^."=-.!« 






•;, 




! 1 1 


i 


: 


; ■'■ 


A 


S A 




* i i i i i 




/, i i 1 i i i i l « - 


\ 


/ 




■n* 


X 




X 1 1 


ttH+lllllll 


1 1 ! 




i 






11 II 




1 




























^^^ 







wzmzsi 



sEsssssg 



Plan or Wonxnoon 




Front £lcv atiqn 

Fig. 30 — Potato Warehouse 

Courtesy of the. North Dakota Experiment Station 



FARM PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE 



227 



used either by a wagon or trucks, or if possible the warehouse should be 
placed right next to a railroad track. 

The heating system should be installed near the elevator so that the 
elevator room and car can be warmed in the winter time during the process 
of loading. The plan will be found an efficient one. A larger type may be 
made from this by doubling the design, but this will serve as an actual 
type on which to begin. 

The Root Cellar. 

In the conservation of the food supply a root cellar is very necessary 
for storage during the winter. During the summer it is a cool place to keep 
dairy products. 

Concrete or clay products are the only materials suitable for the building 





Pla H' Vertical. Section. 

Round Root Ce.li.kr, attached to bark 

Fig. 31 

Courtesy of tlie Minnesota Experiment Station 



of root cellars, since they are buried under the ground and timber structure 
will rot. 

Location. — Root cellars should be placed on the south slope with the 
rest of the farm buildings. There the tendency to freeze is the least and 
drainage is more easily accomplished. 

Freezing. — To prevent freezing in the root cellar, all walls should be 
made of very thick concrete or of hollow tile or hollow concrete construction. 
Even the roof should be double. Air space is the cheapest and most efficient 
insulator. 

Ventilation. — Contrary to the common knowledge on root cellars, it is 
necessary to ventilate them, to remove all bad odors and assist in preserving 
the roots. Place inlets for air near the ceiling, and outlets near the floor. 

Drainage. — Make the drainage of the site absolutely certain, even to 
placing a tile around -the entire structure. 

Storage. — In placing the roots in the cellar, they should be handled with 
care and placed so that the ventilating air will reach them. 



22S THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

A design of a root cellar is given in figure 31. 

The ditch is built outside and away from the house so that odors from 
stored fruits will not inconvenience the household. 

Lightning Protection. 

Lightning protection is a necessity to every farmer. The first protection 
is insurance. The second, lightning rods. 

Buildings with metal roofs should have the metal continued to the 
ground at two of the corners by means of a heavy wiring of piping. Buildings 
with shingle or other roofs than metal should be provided with lightning 
rods. 

Lightning rods can be bought cheaper on the market than they can 
be made, but care should be taken in their installation. There are a few 
essentials to look for. 

1st. Top points should be bright and sharp. 

2nd. Points should extend well above the buildings. 

3rd. The rod should have few or no sharp bends before reaching the 
ground. 

4th. The ground end should be well imbedded under the soil. 

5th. The rod should be large enough. A reliable manufacturer can be 
depended upon to suggest the proper sizes. Avoid adopting new and untried 
schemes. Iron is as good a lightning rod as copper if it is made large 
enough. 

The ground end of the cable should always reach the water table. Ground 
the rods in several places rather than attempt to bring them together by 
bending. 



PAINTS 



On the farm the lack of paint is often more evident than the paint itself. 
There is probably no other point neglected more than the judicious use of paint. 

This is due probably to the idea that paint is solely for ornamental purposes, 
and its use is regarded as a luxury rather than a necessity. While true that it does 
improve the appearance of the property, its fundamental purpose is for protection. 
A small investment in properly made and applied paint will furnish the best 
guarantee of the life of machinery or buildings. Paint also improves the sanitary 
condition wherever it is used. 

The purpose of this discussion is to give some simple ideas in regard to paint 
and its uses. These suggestions are for the buyer and user who is securing it for 
the protection of his property and not all together for appearance. All artistic 
painting should be left to an expert in that line. The discussion will cover the 
method of application and the cost. 

Tools Used in Painting. — The most necessary implements are brushes. 
For large work the bristles are usually about six inches long and are set either 
round, with a diameter of 2 inches to 2 l / 2 inches, or the flat brush, which is 4 or 
5 inches across. Some like a 4-inch long flat brush better than the 6-inch. There 
are many styles and prices of brushes on the market for various special uses. 
For narrow work a small brush should be bought. For large work the wide brush. 
It never pays to buy a cheap brush. 

Along with the paint brush should be secured a number of stiff bristle brushes 
for fitting off the surface before painting. Steel or wire brushes are the best. 
These range in length from two to six inches, and should be inspected and selected 
according to the work for which they are to be used. 

The paint container should be a strong metal bucket with a tight lid. Also 
scraping and putty knives are necessary and should be a part of the equipment. A 
paint strainer made of two thicknesses of cheesecloth is satisfactory. 

Care of Brushes. — The most extravagant waste in the use and application 
of paint is probably in the care of brushes. If the work is continued from day 
to day it will only be necessary to wrap the brushes in several thicknesses of paper 
and not put them in water to keep them from drying out. If the brush is not to be 
used for several days the paint should be thoroughly washed out. Turpentine is 
the most satisfactory agent for cleansing, but kerosene is much cheaper and when 
'used in connection with gasoline or benzine and a little soap and warm water, 
the brush can be thoroughly cleaned. After cleaning the brush it should be 
thoroughly dried. However, it is about as cheap and satisfactory to suspend the 
brushes in turpentine or kerosene until used again. The brushes that are used 
in paint where water is the vehicle can be washed out with the water and easily 
dried. 

229 



230 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Action of Paints. — Water paints, such as whitewash and kalsomine, dry 
in the ordinary way, that is, by evaporation of the water. 

Oil paints, however, dry in a very different manner. Take a mineral oil for 
instance, and spread a little on a glass plate and let it stand a while and examine. 
It will be found to be greasy. Try the same experiment with linseed oil and 
after a few hours examine it, and it will be found to have set hard in the form of a 
black film. If this experiment is tried with other oils it will be found that none 
of them will set like linseed oil Therefore we have this oil as the vehicle of most of 
our paints. There are a number of oils on the market which dry something like 
linseed oil and are called "drying oils." Drying is a chemical change which is 
hindered by cold or dampness but assisted by warmth and sunlight. The process 
requires oxygen. 

It is found sometimes that oils do not dry fast enough for the purpose at hand. 
Then other chemicals are added, such as. compounds of lead and manganese. Also 
the boiling of the oil will hasten its drying. This is probably the best process and 
the least harmful. There are a number of chemicals or mixtures on the market 
called dryers, but these are compounds of lead and manganese thinned with tur- 
pentine or benzine. They accomplish the purpose in making a quick dry, but 
will decrease the durability of the oil film after it is applied. Of all oils that are 
called dryiflg oils linseed oil is the best. 

A film of linseed oil will resist moisture to a certain extent, but upon test will 
be found to admit some dampness. If a pigment is added to the linseed oil it will be 
found that the mixture will be moisture-proof. Therefore a good paint should 
contain linseed oil, pigment, and for convenience a dryer. When it is necessary 
to thin the paint always use turpentine and not benzine or gasoline. Some ex- 
perienced men in paint say that they would not allow gasoline or benzine to be even 
near the work. This is because benzine or gasoline are often used as thinners but 
are detrimental to paint and should never be used. 

Preparation of Surface for Painting. — It is necessary that all surfaces, 
before being painted, should be thoroughly cleaned. The resins in such woods as 
yellow pine and spruce tend to destroy any paint that is laid over them. It is there- 
fore advisable to allow such a surface to remain exposed for six months, so that 
these compounds may seep but. In order to cover these surfaces at once while 
new, a covering of shellac and wood fillers is used. The proper mixing of these will 
be given later. Sometimes a small amount of benzol (coal tar and naphtha) will 
dissolve the outer surface of the resin and permit the paint pigment to penetrate 
into the fiber of the wood. 

The first coat of paint is usually called the priming coat and is mostly oil". 
After this coat all nail holes and blemishes should be closed up with putty. 

In painting iron surfaces all rust and grease should be carefully removed, 
scraping the surface down to bright metal with wire brushes or sandpaper and 
finally dusting off all remaining particles. 

The time to do painting is in the summer when it is warm, dry and bright. 
The paint will go on better, be absorbed quicker by the wood, and dry more 
perfectly. 



PAINTS 231 

Exterior Work. — First put on a thin coat of priming paint, which is usually 
mostly linseed oil. Ordinarily a mixture of paint with an equal volume of linseed 
oil will make a good priming coat. This coat should be well applied and spread, 
in order to penetrate the wood deeply. Sufficient time should be allowed this coat 
to dry and to fill up the pores of the wood. Wait one week before applying the 
next coat. Later another coat should be applied. Neither of these will take so 
much paint. The second one will give the body, and the third will give the gloss. 
These should be spread thin and even. 

Interior Painting. — Much of the interior protective covering is made of 
varnish, now that interior painting is out of date. The paint for this work may 
be entirely different from the outside, as the service to which it is put is very 
much less severe. Most any paint of any value will last well inside. It must be 
borne in mind that paint is likely to fade. Aside from, that there is not much 
trouble of failure if rnade from pure material. 

Painting on Metal. — Metal is so smooth that it often gives up the paint 
with ease. This is probably due to the greasiness of the surface. Whenever a 
metal surface is to be covered with paint it should first be cleaned with benzine or 
gasoline. No expense should be spared in cleaning the surface. 

The best paint for metal surfaces is oil with red lead. If this color is too 
bright it may be darkened by an addition of lampblack till the color suits. Remem- 
ber that any good oil paint will give a good protection for iron if properly made 
and applied. 

Paint Mixing. — Formerly it was advised that the individual make his 
own paint, but there are so many good paints on the market already prepared, 
machine mixed, that if they can be bought at the right price it will certainly pay 
to do so. However, where labor and power is cheap and where there is much to 
do, a paint mixing machine would be advisable. 

Cost and Composition of Paint. — It is true that as many paints can be 
made in a well equipped factory as by any individual at home, or any small 
shop. Ready mixed paint may be good or bad. The market is flooded with both 
kinds. The number of different paints found on the market is enormous. Only 
a few typical formulae of paint and methods of calculating the cost can be given 
here. It is best never to buy any paint material that has not the manufacturer's 
name on the package. Then try to find out about the reliability of the manufacturer. 
The large paint manufacturers turn out a reliable standard product. 

White paints or the very light tints are the most expensive because there are 
few white pigments which have covering power. Most white pigments when dry 
seem to be opaque, and when mixed with oil become quite transparent. White 
lead, zinc, white, sublimed white lead, zinc lead, and lithopone are practically the 
only white pigments which have good covering power in oil. All these pigments 
are expensive. Of the dark shades there are a number of cheaper pigments 
which have a good covering power. Iron oxide pigment is much cheaper than 
lead and will make a good dark brown paint. For this color, then, it would be 
cheaper than white lead. 



232 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Calculating the Cost of White Paints. — A good white paint consists of 
90 to 95 percent of linseed oil and from 10 to 15 percent of japan drier. Fourteen 
pounds of dry white lead and 1%. pounds of vehicle will make a gallon of paint, or 
15 pounds of paste lead and 6% pounds of vehicle will make a gallon of paint; 
9j/2 pounds of white zinc and 5^4 pounds of paint vehicle will make a gallon of 
zinc white paint. If linseed oil costs 95 cents a gallon, white lead 7 cents a pound, 
and zinc white 8 cents a pound, a gallon of white lead paint will cost $1.87, and a 
gallon of zinc paint $1.46. 

To find the cost of the paint at any particular place or time it will only.be 
necessary to find out the cost of these ingredients on the market and compare 
figures. Paints are sometimes adulterated with cheaper mixtures.. White lead is 
often adulterated with silica, whiting, barytes, china-clay, etc. These have no 
injurious effect on, the paints and sometimes will be beneficial, but they decrease the 
covering power of the paint. Therefore there is no reason why a paint should cost 
more than linseed oil and white lead. In buying a mixed paint one should be care- 
ful to investigate and see if the price is higher than pure white lead and linseed oil 
would cost. For colored paint the coloring matter might be the most expensive in- 
gredient, and in this case the paint might be higher priced than ^hite lead and oil. 

Cost of Colored Paints. — The lighter tints of colored paints consist of 
white lead and some coloring matter. Since the coloring matter is not uniform 



COMPOSITION AND COST OF TINTED AND COLORED PAINTS 



1 


Tints 


Colored Paints 


Data 


Gray 


Buff 


Yellow 


Drab 


Blue 


Brown 


Red 


Green 


Black 


Percentage composition : 
Linseed oil 


43.4 


43.0 


45.0 
13.0 
25.0 

5.0 


41.0 


43.0 


49.0 
12.0 
24.0 


57.0 


34.0 


65.0 


White lead 




Zinc white 


21.0 

27.0 

2.0 

5.0 


21.0 
29.0 


21.0 

26.0 

2.0 

4.0 


22.0 

27.0 

2.0 

4.0 


2 






Sublimed white lead 






Barium sulphate 


5.0 


25.0 


49.0 




China-clay 




Whiting 








11.0 






Ground slate 
















26.0 


Asbestine 


1.0 

.6 

56.6 

(1) 

.541 
.782 
1.32 


1.0 

6.0 

57.0 

(2) 

.582 
.779 
1.36 


1.0 
11.0 
55.0 

(3) 

.512 

.777 
1 .29 


1.0 

5.0 

59.0 

(4) 

.583 
.763 
1.35 


1.0 
1.0 

57.0 

(5) 

.591 
.779 
1.37 


1.0 
9.0 

51.0 

(6) 

.451 
.805 
1.26 








Color '. 


5.0 
43.0 

(7) 

.51-1 
.810 
1.32 


17.0 
66.0 

(8) 

' .606 
.684 
1.29 


9.0 
35 


Nature of color 


(9) 


Cost per gallon, dollars: 

Pigment 

Vehicle 

Total 


.116 
.796 
.91 



Bone black; tuscan red; ultramarine blue. 

Umber or ocher. 

Golden ocher. 

Ocher and bone black. 

Prussian blue. 

Bone black; Venetian red; chrome yellow. 

Para-red. 

Five-sixths chrome yellow, one-sixth Prussian blue. 

Carbon. 



PAINTS 233 

nor are colors graded scientifically, the total amount of coloring matter employed 
in paints rarely amounts to as much as five percent. A table will be given showing 
the mixture of the various coloring matters to produce the most common colors. 

For dark shades of brown or red there is probably nothing which is as cheap 
as the oxide of iron pigments.. These vary very much in shade, giving both browns 
and dull reds. A pigment that gives a very satisfactory reddish brown and contains 
about 40 percent of iron oxide makes a satisfactory paint containing approximately 
56 percent pigment and 44 percent vehicle, the vehicle, or mixing liquid, being very 
much the same as that used in a first class white paint. This pigment is cheap, 
under normal conditions costing not more than 1 or 1^ cents per pound. The 
pigment in a gallon of this paint, therefore, would cost approximately 10 cents, and 
the 5.94 pounds of vehicle about 73 cents, giving a cost of 83 cents for the gallon 
of paint. 

An inspection of these figures shows that the expensive part of this paint is 
the vehicle and not the pigment. A paint of this character is a very good material to 
apply either to wood or iron. There are more expensive paints, however, frequently 
used on iron to protect it from rusting, the most popular being red lead and linseed 
oil. This material undoubtedly affords very good protection, but it is also expen- 
sive. A red lead paint cannot be made and kept as can most other paints. The red 
lead itself causes the oil to dry, and no additional drier is necessary. In fact, red 
lead should not be mixed until just before it is used. A paint made of 70 percent of 
red lead and 30 percent of linseed oil will weigh about 19.8 pounds to the gallon. 
A gallon of paint, therefore, will contain 13.86 pounds of red lead. The 30 percent 
of linseed oil will weigh 5.94 pounds, and a gallon of linseed oil 7.75 pounds. 

Whitewash. — Whitewash is the cheapest of all paints, and for certain 
purposes it is the best. Lime, which is the basis of whitewash, makes a very 
sanitary coating, and is probably to be preferred for cellars and the interior of 
stables and other outbuildings. The following directions for making white- 
wash are taken from "White Paints and Painting Materials," by W. G. Scott : 

Ordinary whitewash : This is made by slaking about 10 pounds of quick- 
lime with 2 gallons of water. 

The lime is placed in a pail and the water poured over it, after which the 
pail is covered with an old piece of carpet or cloth and allowed to stand for 
about an hour. With an insufficient amount of water, the lime is "scorched'' 
and not all converted into hydrate; on the other hand, too much water retards 
the slaking by lowering the heat. 

"Scorched" lime is generally lumpy and transparent; hence the use of the 
proper amount of water for slaking and an after addition of water to bring it to 
a brush consistency is necessary. 

Factory whitewash (interiors) : For walls, ceilings, etc. 

(1) Sixty-two pounds (1 bushel) quicklime, slake with 15 gallons water. 
Keep barrel covered until steam ceases to rise. Stir occasionally to prevent 
scorching. 

(2) Two and one-half pounds rye flour, beat up in *4 gallon of cold water, 
then add 2 gallons of boiling water. 



234 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

(3) Two and one-half pounds common rock salt, dissolve in 2y 2 gallons of 
hot water. 

Mix (2) and (3), then pour into (1) and stir until all is well mixed. 

This is the whitewash used in the large implement factories and recom- 
mended by the insurance companies. The above formula gives a product of 
perfect brush consistency. 

Weatherproof whitewash (exteriors) : For buildings, fences, etc. 

(1) Sixty-two pounds (1 bushel) quicklime, slake with 12 gallons of hot 
water. 

(2) Two pounds common table salt, 1 pound sulphate of zinc, dissolved in 
2 gallons of boiling water. 

(3) Two gallons skimmed milk. 

Pour (2) into (1), then add the milk (3) and mix thoroughly. 
Lighthouse whitewash: (1) Sixty-two pounds (1 bushel) quicklime, slake 
with 12 gallons of hot water. 

(2) Twelve pounds rock salt, dissolve in 6 gallons of boiling water. 

(3) Six pounds Portland cement. 
Pour (2) into (1) and then add (3). 

Note. — Alum added to a lime whitewash prevents it rubbing off. • An ounce 
to the gallon is sufficient. 

Flour paste answers the same purpose, but needs zinc sulphate as a preserva- 
tive. 

Molasses renders the lime more soluble ana causes it to penetrate the wood 
or plaster surface ; a pint of molasses to 5 gallons of whitewash is sufficient. 

Silicate of soda solution (about 35° Baume) in the proportion of 1 to 10 
of whitewash produces a fireproof cement. 

A pound of cheap bar soap dissolved in a gallon of boiling water and 
added to about 5 gallons of thick whitewash will give it a gloss like oil paint. 

An old recipe for whitewash, issued by the Lighthouse Board of the 
Treasury Department, said to be very good for outdoor exposure, is as follows : 

Slake half a bushel of unslaked lime with boiling water, keeping it cov- 
ered during the process. Strain it and add a peck of salt, dissolved in warm 
water; three pounds of ground rice put in boiling water and boiled to a thin 
paste; half a pound of powdered Spanish whiting and a pound of clear glue, 
dissolved in warm water; mix these well together and let the mixture stand for 
several days. Keep the wash thus prepared in a kettle or portable furnace; and 
when used, put it on as hot as possible, with painters or whitewash brushes. 

The washes which contain milk, flour, or glue are not to be advised for use in 
damp, interior places, owing to danger of decomposition of the organic matter. 
For such locations it is better to use one of the formulas containing none of these 
ingredients. Whitewash is applied with a broad whitewash brush and is spread 
lightly over the surface, no attempt being made to brush it in, as would be 
done with an oil paint. 

Calcimine. — Cold water paints or calcimine have as their basis whiting 
or carbonate of lime instead of caustic lime, as in whitewash. This material 



PAINTS 235 

itself does not adhere, and it is necessary to use binder of some kind, generally 
glue or casein. Scott also gives the following directions for making calcimine : 

Ordinary white stock (calcimine) : (1) Sixteen pounds dry Paris white 
(whiting) mixed until free of lumps, with 1 gallon boiling water. 

(2) One-half pound white sizing glue; soak 4 hours in one-eighth gallon 
cold water. Dissolve on a water-bath (gluepot) and pour into (1). 

The above recipe makes about 2 gallons of stock, weighing 12)4 pounds 
per gallon. It is of proper brush consistency and may be used at once, but is 
better after standing half an hour. Any tint may be given the white stock by 
stirring the desired dry color in a little water and adding sufficient liquid color to 
the base. 

The following data in regard to the covering capacity and time of applying 
was obtained as an ayerage of several years' work from shop records : 

One gallon covers on plaster = 270 square feet. 

One gallon covers on brick = 180 square feet. 

One gallon covers on wood = 225 square feet. 

A man in 1 hour, using a 5-inch brush, will coat the following amount of 
surface : 

Rough walls = 22 square yards (198 sq. ft.) 

Smooth walls = 38 square yards (312 sq. ft.) 

Brick walls = 20 square yards (180 sq. ft.) 

Flat surface (bench or floor) 40 square yards. 

Ceiling (with stepladder) 25 square yards. 

Damp-proof calcimine (white stock) : For plastered walls. (1) Sixteen 
pounds Paris white or extra gilder's whiting, 1 gallon boiling water. 

(2) One-half pound white sizing glue, soak 4 hours in one-half gallon cold 
water, then dissolve on a water bath. 

(3) One-fourth pound phosphate of soda, dissolve in one-eighth gallon boil- 
ing water. 

Mix (3) with (1), then add (2). 

If a thick white stock is wanted, use half a gallon of water with the 16 
pounds of Paris white instead of one gallon. For tinting, use colors that are 
not affected by lime, namely, yellow ochers, sienna, umbers, Venetian red, para- 
red, maroon oxide, ultramarine blue, ultramarine green, chromium oxide, bone 
black, etc. 

If lampblack is used for tinting, it must be stirred up in hot water containing 
a little soap or in cold water containing a little borax, the alkali overcoming the* 
greasy nature of the lampblack. 

Precautions to Be Observed in Painting. 

Do not use any paints containing compounds of lead about stables or outbuild- 
ings where the fumes from decaying organic matter occur, as these gases are 
likely to darken the lead paints. Do not use with lead compounds any pigments 
which may liberate compounds of sulphur. For example, ultramarine blue, con- 
taining sulphur in a form in which it may be set free, is a beautiful and very per- 



236 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

manent blue. It may be used with zinc white, but should not be used with white 
lead or any other lead pigments. Prussian blue, on the contrary, does not contain 
sulphur and may be used with lead pigments. 

Remember that turpentine and benzine are very inflammable, and especial 
precautions should be taken not to bring paint containing these substances near 
any light or open fire. 

Many pigments are poisonous, and the workman should be particularly care- 
ful to remove all paint stains from the skin, and not under any circumstances 
allow any of it to get into his mouth. A man before eating should not only 
change his clothes but wash all paint stains from his skin. It is not advisable to 
use turpentine or benzine in removing paint stains from the hands. Oil the hands 
thoroughly with linseed oil or with any other fatty oil, then thoroughly wash with 
soap. The paint may be removed in this way if it has not been allowed to dry 
too thoroughly on the hands. 

PAINT BASES. 

There are numerous formulas for mixing paint on the market. The table 
quoted before gives a variety which will be sufficient for any farm use, but the 
following list is also offered since it might not be possible to get some of the 
material in the preceding table. The following will be used as pigment to which 
linseed oil and a dryer must be added to make the proper consistency. The fol- 
lowing colors and minerals must first be ground to a very fine powder and mix 
to a uniform color. The addition of a small quantity of varnish will improve the 
quality : 
Buff- 
Yellow ocher 45 pounds 

Whiting . 5 pounds 

Oxide of zinc 4^ pounds 

Plaster of Paris 1 pound 

Brick Brown — 

Yellow ocher 25 pounds 

Calcined copperas 2>y 2 pounds 

Red hematite. iy 2 pounds 

High grade silica 7 pounds 

Whiting 18 pounds 

Gray — 

Oxide of zinc 30 pounds 

White lead 7 pounds 

Whiting 11 pounds 

Bone black 34 pound 

Yellow ocher *2 pounds 

Crimson — 

Indian red 25 pounds 

Crocus martis 7 pounds 

Oxide of zinc 5 pounds 

Whiting 7 pounds 



PAINTS 237 

Vandyke Brown — 

Yellow ocher 24^ pounds 

Whiting 18 pounds 

Umber 4J4 pounds 

Oxide of zinc : 7 pounds 

Purple oxide of iron 1 pound 

Blood Red- 
Crocus martis 30 pounds 

Whiting t . 18 pounds r 

Hematite 3 pounds 

Silica 3 pounds 

Venetian red 2 pounds 

Drab- 
Yellow ocher 40 pounds 

Whiting . . '. 10^ pounds 

Oxide of zinc 8 pounds 

Sulphate of barytes 1 pound 

Blackboard Paints. — Black : 

Shellac 1 pound 

Alcohol 1 gallon 

Lampblack (fine quality) 4^ ounces 

Powdered emery 5 ounces 

Ultramarine blue 3 J/2 ounces 

First dissolve this shellac in alcohol. Strain the lampblack, emery, and ul- 
tramarine blue through a cloth strainer. Mix slowly with the shellac solution, 
concentrate. 

Fire-Proof Paint. — Fire-proof paint may be made by mixing 40 pounds 
of powdered asbestos, 10 pounds of aluminate of soda, 10 pounds of lime, 10 
pounds of silicate of soda with the addition of any fire-proof coloring. 

Graining With Paint. — The graining of paint may be accomplished by 
the following means : 

Prepare the mixture as shown in the following formula, spread them on a 
flat surface about eighteen inches wide at a time and with a goose feather pro- 
duce the graining that is desired. As the paint dries, a coat of varnish may be 
put on to bring out the grain. 

Formula. — Use two-thirds of white lead, one-third of golden ocher, mix 
with boiled linseed oil and dryer. Put on two coats, then apply a coat of varnish 
and sienna and treat with goose feather as indicated above. 

IMITATION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD. 

Birch. — Produce a light clean buff color, a mixture of white lead, yellow 
ocher or rough sienna oil. Over this add a thin layer of warm brown, pro- 
ducing a panel of two or three broad color shades. Then take a large mottler, 
and mottle the darker parts into the light. Draw the mottle slantwise as 
for maple but leave a broad stiff mark. Before this is hardened, draw the 



238 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

mottle across the painted work and break it up. When thoroughly dry, 
carefully wet the work with clean water and clean mottler and add a darker 
over-grain with a thin oak over-grainer. 

Maple. — Use 30 pounds of white lead, y 2 ounce of vermilion, y 2 ounce 
of lemon chrome. 

Ash. — Use 30 pounds of white lead, y 2 ounce of deep vermilion and 
y 2 ounce of lemon chrome. 

Medium. Oak. — Use 30 pounds of white lead, 1 pound of French ocher, 
y 2 ounce of burnt umber. 

Dark Oak. — Use 30 pounds of white lead, 5 pounds of burnt umber, 
24 pounds of medium Venetian red. 

Light Mahogany. — Use 30 pounds of white lead, \y 2 pounds of burnt 
umber, 5 pounds of medium Venetian red. 

American Walnut. — Use 15 pounds of white lead, 4^ pounds of French 
ocher, 2 pounds of burnt umber, y 2 p>ound of medium Venetian red. 

Roof Paint.— A good paint for a roof covered with tarred or roofing 
paper is : Distilled coal tar, 70 parts ; heavy mineral oil, 10 parts ; American rosin, 
20 parts. 

Varnishes. 

Varnish is a solution of resinous matter forming a clear limped fluid 
capable of hardening without losing its transparency. It is prepared by 
mixing a gum in a suitable solvent in order that each conveys the good 
qualities and counteracts the bad ones of the others. This produces the 
desired colors without detracting from the hardening and drying properties 
of the varnish. 

The gums used in mixing the varnish are usually juniper gum or true 
sanderac. The preparation , mixed from its constituents is not an easy task 
and it is not advised that the amateur attempt such work. It will always 
be found advisable to buy a good varnish on the market. There are plenty 
of them at the right price. For outside work be sure to buy an outside var- 
nish. See that the purpose is always marked on the can. Do likewise for 
interior work, observing the amount of heat and moisture to be considered, 
and select with these in view. 

Shellac Varnish. — A good varnish can be made from 3 pounds of shellac 
to a gallon alcohol. This should be added uniformly with a brush and 
rubbed with a rag. A very fine polish can be produced by patiently applying 
this mixture and rubbing with a rag wet with shellac varnish. 

How to Varnish. — First buy a first-class varnish and do not dilute it. 
Warm it, if thinning is needed. Varnish only on smooth clean surface. 
Handle only in a clean vessel and with clean brushes. Apply varnishes 
of all kinds as uniformly as possible. They should be flowed on with a 
brush and not rubbed in while wet. 

Allow the first coat to dry thoroughly before the second is applied. 
Allow to dry slowly. Protect them from dirt and flies until perfectly dry. 

A new brush does not varnish well. It is only after one has been broken 



PAINTS 239 

in that it is good. The thin film that forms over a varnish after it stands, indi- 
cates that the varnish has linseed oil and is fat and permanent. A meager 
varnish will not produce a thin skin even when it dries thick. A varnish 
that turns white is a poor quality. Whitening can be removed only by 
taking off the varnish. 

Lastly it is to be emphasized that in buying a varnish a reputable manu- 
facturer be considered. Only an article that has been thoroughly tried and 
is guaranteed should be used. Do not blame the varnish if it fails, without 
investigating whether it has been properly applied. 

Enamel Varnishes. — Enamel varnish consists of solutions of spirituous 
gum lac, resin and copol with the addition of salicylic acid. Enameling is a 
very important process and cannot be well carried out with home mixed 
material. However, a few formulas will be given. These may be mixed 
with any good varnish. 

Enamel Formulas. — White. — Lithopone, 2 parts, by weight ; white lead 
purest y 2 part, by weight; varnish, 20 parts, by weight. 

Black. — Ivory black, 2 parts, by weight ; Paris blue, 0.01 part, by weight ; 
varnish, 23 parts, by weight. 

Pale Grey. — Graphite, 2 parts, by weight; ultramarine, 0.01 part by 
weight; lithopone, 40 parts, by weight; varnish, 100 parts, by weight. 

Pink, pale. — Carmine, y 2 part, by weight; lithopone, 15 parts, by weight; 
varnish, 40 parts, by weight; bezine, l]/ 2 parts, by weight. 

Sky Blue. — Ultramarine, 5 parts, by weight ; lithopone, 5 parts by 
weight ; ultramarine green, 0.05 parts, by weight ; varnish, 30 parts, by 
weight ; bezine, 1 part, by weight. 

Leaf Green. — Chrome green, pale, 5 parts, by weight ; varnish, 25 parts, 
by weight ; benzine, y 2 part, by weight. 

Glues. 

The bases for glues are made by a patent process from bones and sinews 
which are a waste from the meat packing industry. A test for glue is the 
amount of water which it will take to swell it. The more water it takes 
the better. Four ounces of glue soaked for twelve hours in four pounds of 
cold water, should swell up to 16 ounces, yes, even to 20 ounces. 

Liquid glue can be made by mixing, first 3 ounces of glue, 3 ounces of 
gelatine, 4 ounces of acetic acid, 2 ounces of water and 30 grains of alum. 
For six hours skim and add one fluid ounce of alcohol, 2 pounds of ground glue 
No. 2, 11 ounces of sodium carbonate, 2>y> pints of water and 116 minims of oil of 
cloves. The soda to be dissolved in water and poured over the dry glue and 
allowed to soak for 12 hours. Then heat carefully in a water bath and add 
the oil of cloves before the mixture cools. 

Glue Formulas. — There are dozens of formulas for glues on the market 
as well as a number of prepared mixtures. Those who are experienced in 
the uses of glues advise that it is cheaper to buy the glue already made than 
to try to make it. 



ROPE AND ITS USE 

The ability to tie a few useful knots and splice a rope is of use not only to 
the sailor, but to the farmer, the construction engineer, and the contractor. Indeed 
there are times when it is useful to people in nearly all walks of life. There are 
two reasons for publishing this bulletin : First, that it may serve as a reference 
or notebook to the students who take this work in class, and, second, that it may 
serve as a book of instruction to those who desire to acquire this ability by them- 
selves. 

Only a few knots, hitches, and splices are shown, as it is believed that the 
average person has not the time or persistence to learn a large number of them 
so thoroughly that he can make them at any time from memory. There are sev- 
eral ways of tying some knots, and more than one way of making some of the 
splices and hitches, but the author has shown only one way of making each and, 
so far as he can decide, the way that is easiest to learn, though it may not be the 
quickest and easiest way used by the expert. To those who may have some word 
of criticism, the author desires to say that this bulletin is not written for the in- 
struction of those who consider themselves proficient in this work. Information 
regarding other methods and other knots will be gladly received. . 

General Information. 

Construction of Rope. — A rope is made of fibers so intertwined or twisted 
together as to form a thick cord capable of sustaining a severe strain. The pri- 
mary object of twisting the fibers together to form a rope is that by friction 
they may be held together when a strain is applied to the whole. Hard twisting 
has the further advantage of compacting the fibers and preventing the penetration 
of moisture. 

The steps in manufacturing rope are as follows: 

1. The fibers are twisted into yarns in a direction called "right hand," 
as shown at A in Figure 1. 

2. From two to eight of these yarns are then twisted together into a 
strand in a direction called "left-hand," as shown at B in Figure 1. 

3. Three of these strands for a three-strand, and four for a four-strand 
rope are then twisted together in a direction called "right hand," as shown at 
C in Figure 1. 

4. If these ropes are twisted together to form a cable, shown in Figure 2, 
they are twisted in a direction called "left hand." 

When a strand is twisted up, the yarns composing it are untwisted; and 
when a rope is twisted up, the strands composing it are untwisted, but the yarns 
in the strands are again twisted up. It is this opposite twist that keeps the rope 

240 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



241 




Figure 1 

from untwisting. When a weight is hung at the end of a rope, the tendency is 
for the rope to untwist and become longer. The weight will revolve until the 
strain of the rope trying to untwist is just balanced by the strain of the strands 
being twisted up. All makers of rope twist them in the same direction ; other- 
wise it would not always be possible to splice- ropes obtained from the different 
factories. 



S\\^\\\\ v 



/^our Strand 



Three Strand 




Figure 2 



242 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Sources of Fiber. — Many different vegetable fibers are used for rope- 
making. The most common ones are Manila, or Manila hemp, common hemp, 
sisal hemp, and cotton. Flax, jute, coir fiber, and other materials are also used. 

Manila fiber is obtained from the abaca plant which grows only in the 
Philippine Islands. It obtains its name from the city of Manila, from which 
most of it is exported. The trunk of this plant resembles the banana tree and 
is closely wrapped by long leaves which yield fibers from six to twelve, and 
even eighteen, feet in length. 

Common hemp is an annual herb of the nettle family, from four to eight feet 
high. It has green flowers and a tough, fibrous inner bark. The tough, strong 
fibers obtained from the inner bark are used in making coarse cloth and rope. 

Sisal hemp comes principally from Yucatan and Mexico. Its fiber is es- 
pecially valuable for ship cables as it seems to resist the action of sea water bet- 
ter than most other materials. 

Cotton is planted annually in the United States and is the staple agricultural 
product of our southern states. The commercial cotton is the soft, woolly, 
fibrous material which is attached to the seed of the cotton plant. The fiber is 
white or yellow, and from two-thirds of an inch or less to two inches long. The 
fibers are contained in a three- to five-celled capsule or boll which bursts open 
when ripe and allows the fibers to escape. After the seeds are removed, the 
fiber is manufactured into thread, cloth, twine, and rope. 

Flax is an annual plant with stems about two feet high, blue flowers, and a 
fibrous inner bark which yields the flax of commerce. 

Jute is obtained from two tall, slender-stemmed, annual, Asiatic herbs of the 
linden family, now naturalized in various countries. The fiber obtained from the 
inner bark is used in the manufacture of carpets, bagging, canvas mats, and rope. 

Coir fiber, which is obtained from the husk of the cocoanut, is an important 
material used for rope-making and cordage. It is fairly strong and is lighter than 
Manila or hemp. 

How Sold. — Rope is usually retailed by weight, but is ordered by giving 
the diameter in inches and number of feet wanted. Wholesale dealers sell it by 
the weight stamped on the coils by the manufacturer, but usually do not break the 
coils. 

Strength of Rope. — The strength of a new rope of a given size will de- 
pend on (1) the kind of fiber used, (2) the quality of the fiber, (3) the quality 
of the workmanship, (4) the effect of preservatives on the fibers, and (5) the 
number of strands. No accurate rule can be given for calculating the strength, 
and any table giving the strength will be only approximately correct. Four-strand 
ropes have about 16 percent more strength than three-strand ropes. Tarring 
ropes decreases the strength by about 25 percent because the high temperature of 
the tar injures the fibres. The strength of a rope is decreased by age, exposure, 
and wear. 

The breaking strength of a rope is the weight or pull that will break it. The 
safe load is the weight you may put on a rope without danger of breaking it. 
The safe load must be very much less than the breaking strength, in order that life 
and property may not be endangered when heavy objects are being moved and 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



243 



lifted. The safe load is usually regarded as one-sixth of the breaking strength. 
The breaking strength and safe load for old ropes must be largely a matter of 
good judgment and experience. 

Calculation of Strength. — For new Manila rope the breaking strength in 
pounds may be found approximately by the following rule : Square the diameter, 
measured in inches, and multiply this product by 7,200. Results obtained from this 
rule may vary as much as 15 percent from actual tests. The safe load can be 
found by dividing the breaking strength by six. 

Suppose we wish to find the breaking strength and. safe load of a three- 
fourths-inch Manila rope. The square of Y is 9/16, which, multiplied by 7,200, 
gives 4,050 pounds as its breaking strength, and 4,050 by 6 gives 675 pounds as its 
safe load. 



INFORMATION ABOUT THREE- STRAND UNTARRED ROPE 















Breaking Strength 


Safe 


l.oad 




Circum- 
ference 


Feet 
per 


Weight 
per 


Weight 
per 


Feet 
per 








Diameter 












Coil 


Coil 


100 Feet 


Pound 


Manila ' Hemp 


Manila 


Hemp 


Inches. 


Inches. 




Pounds. 


Pounds. 




Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


3 /io 


%8 


2,400 


40 


1% 


00 


240 


ISO 


40 


30 


M 


"4 


2,400 


55 


2H 


43 


450 


330 


75 


55 


5 Ae 


1 


2,400 


70 


3 


32 


720 


540 


120 


90 


y% 


IH 


1,200 


45 


4K 


-:;'_• 


1,070 


810 


180 


135 


m 


1>2 


1,200 


90 


7H 


13H 


1,800 


1,350 


300 


225 


% 


2 


1,200 


170 


13H 


7V 3 


3,000 


2,340 


500 


390 


' H 


2% 


1,200 


210 


17 


G 


3,900 


2,940 


650 


490 


34 


2% 


1,200 


295 


25 


4 


5,520 


4,140 


920 


690 


l 


Ws 


1,200 


340 


30 


SVs 


0,900 


5,160 


1,150 


860 


Wi 


3H 


1,200 


455 


40 


2y 2 


8,850 


6,040 


1,475 


1,100 


IX 


W% 


1,200 


510 


45 


2H 


10,800 


7,950 


1,800 


1,325 


m 


4M 


1,200 


785 


70 


IH 


15,000 


11,400 


2,500 


1,900 


1M 


5H 


1,200 


1,160 


100 


1 


•20,640 


15,600 


3,440 


2,600 


2 


CM 


1,200 


1,440 


125 


■\i 


24,660 


1S.000 


4,110 


3,100 



Hemp rope is approximately three-fourths as strong as Manila so that we 
use the following rule for it : The breaking strength of hemp rope in pounds is 
5,400 times the square of the diameter in inches. The safe load is found by di- 
viding the breaking strength by six as we did for the Manila rope. Thus breaking 
strength for a three-quarter-inch hemp rope would be 

H X Ya X 5400 = 3037.5 pounds. 
and the estimated safe load would be 

5037.5 -=- 6 = 506.25 pounds. 

Calculation of Weight. — One rule for calculating the weight of rope is 
the following : To find the weight of a piece of rope one foot long, square the 
diameter measured in inches, and multiply this number by 0.32. Results ob- 
tained by this rule may vary as much as ten percent from the actual weight of 
new rope. Rope will take up moisture if stored in damp places, as basements, so 
that its weight will be considerably increased. 

The actual diameter of rope is usually a little larger than the figures given in 
the table. The circumference is given to the nearest eighth of an inch. The num- 
ber of feet in a coil may vary from the figures given in the table. Nearly all 
sizes are now put up in half coils also. The weight per coil will vary with the 



244 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



number of feet and the amount of moisture contained in the rope. The weight of 
coils of new rope of equal length as received from the factory may vary as much 
as 15 per cent from the weights given in the table. The weights given for coils have 
been obtained by averaging values obtained from various manufacturers' catalogs 




Figure 3 



with the calculated value. The figures giving the weights of one hundred feet and 
the number of feet in one pound have been obtained by averaging values obtained 
from manufacturers' catalogs. The actual weights and lengths may vary as much 
as 10 percent, because of differences in hardness of twist and moisture content. 
The breaking strength of Manila rope has been obtained by averaging values ob- 
tained by calculation with those obtained from tests by C. W. Hunt, Spencer Mil- 
ler, Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book (1909), page 344, the Watertown 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



245 



Arsenal, and the American Civil Engineers' Pocket Book (1911), page 398, John 
Wiley and Sons. The figures are considered more reliable than those from manu- 
facturers' catalogs. The figures for the breaking strength of hemp are approxi- 
mately three-fourths of the values given for Manila. The safe loads are ap- 
proximately one-sixth of the breaking strengths. 

Gare of Rope. — Keep rope in a dry place, do not leave it out in the rain. 
If a rope gets wet, stretch it out straight to dry. Do not let the ends become un- 
twisted but .fix them in some way to prevent it as soon as the rope is obtained. A 



k 


C^ 


>^^# 


BlA 


WjkSsp 




aMf***" 






;• 







Figure 4 

stiff and hard rope may be made very soft and flexible by boiling for a time in 
pure water. This will of course remove some of the tar or other preservatives. 
Cowboys treat their lasso ropes in this way. 

Uncoiling Rope. — 1. Start with the end found in the center of the coil 
as shown in Figure 3. 

2. Pull this end out and the rope should uncoil in a direction opposite to 
the direction of motion of the hands of a clock as shown by the arrow in Figure 3. 

3. If it uncoils in the wrong direction, turn the coil over and pull this same 
end through the center of the coil and out on the other side. 

4. If these directions are followed, the rope will come out" of the coil with 
very few kinks or snarls. 



246 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Relaying an Untwisted Rope. — Knowing- how to relay the strands is use- 
ful because it enables you to save a part of the strands that would otherwise have 
to be cut off and wasted. In relaying do not twist or turn the rope but twist 
each strand up tight and lay it in its proper place as shown by strand A in Figure 4, 
holding it with the thumb. Strand B is next put in place, then strand C, and then 
strand A again. 

Principles of a Knot. — "The principle of a knot is that no two parts which 
would move in the same direction if the rope were to slip should lay along side 
of and touching each other." Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book (1907), 
page 345. 




Figure 5 




Hi ^BHk 



Figure 6 



Figure 7 



"Another principle that should be added to the above is that a knot or hitch 
must be so devised that the tight part of the rope must bear on the free end in 
such a manner as to pinch and hold it, in a knot, against another tight part of the 
rope, or in a hitch, against the object to which the rope is attached." Cornell Read- 
ing Courses, Vol. 1, No. 8. 

Elements of a Knot. — The open bight, Figure 5, bight, Figure 6, and 
round turn, Figure 7, are elements that are used in making knots, hitches, and 
splices. 

Preventing the Ends of Rope from Untwisting. 

Whipping. — Whipping 1 should be used wherever the end of the rope must 
pass through small openings, as in reeving a set of blocks. In whipping, carefully 
observe these directions : 

1. Put a string under a strand of the rope at a distance from the end which 
is equal to a turn of one strand, as shown in Figure 8, and allow several inches 
of end, as shown at A in Figure 8. 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



247 



2. Give the end B one turn around the rope as shown by the arrow in Figure 
8, and then fold the end A over as shown in Figure 9. 

3. Continue whipping or wrapping the end B tightly around the rope and 
end A until you have reached a point about midway between the starting point 
and the end of the rope, as shown in Figure 10. 




Figure 8 



Figure 9 



Figure 10 



4. Fold the end A back, making a loop that will reach slightly beyond the 
end of the rope as shown in Figure 10. 

5. Continue whipping the end B around the rope outside the loop which 
should be laid in the groove formed by two strands, until the work appears as 
shown in Figure 11. 

6. Pass the end B through the 
loop, then pull end A until it draws 
the end B under the whipping as far 
as possible, and cut both ends off 
very close. The completed work 
should appear as shown in Figure 12. 



Slip Knot and Half Hitch.— The 

slip knot and half hitch constitutes a 
combination that is used for the 
same purposes as the Flemish loop 
but is made in this way: 

1. Tie a slip knot as shown in 
Figure 13. 

2. Move end A as shown by 
the arrow in Figure 13, which gives 




Figure 11 



Figure 12 



it a half hitch around the long end as shown in Figure 14. 

3. Complete the knot by drawing up tight as shown in Figure 15. 

Spliced Eye. — The spliced eye is used to fasten a rope permanently into a 
ring or eye, or to make a permanent loop at the end of a rope. The same method 



248 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 




Figure 13 



may be used for splicing one rope into the side of another. Learn to make the 
short splice before trying to- make the spliced eye, then follow these directions: 

1. Unlay the strands about 
five turns, and start strand 1 
under any strand as shown at 
point B in Figure 16. The dis- 
tance from A to B should be 
enough to make an eye of the de- 
sired size. 

2. Draw strand 1 through 
the rope and start strand 2 under 
the next strand at point B as 
shown in Figure 17. Be sure not 
to get strand 3 in the place of 
strand 2. 

3. Pass strand 3 under the 
next strand at point B as shown in 
Figure 18. 

4. Draw the three strands 
up tight and splice them into the 
rope just as you do in making the 
short splice. The remainder of 
the work is shown in Figures 19, 
20 and 21. Figure 14 

Loops Between the Rope's Ends. 

Double Bowline. — The double 
bowline is used when a loop is 
wanted between the ends of a rope 
that will not pull tight or slip. It 
may be tied as follows : 

1. Grasp the rope as shown 
in Figure 22. 

2. Tie an overhand knot as 
shown in Figure 23. 

3. Fold loop A back over the overhand knot as shown by the arrow in Figure 
23, and then grasp the knot with the left hand exactly at point B, as shown in 
Figures 23 and 24. 

4. Hold the double bight securely in the left hand and draw that part of the 
rope which forms loop A through the double bight, as shown by the arrow in 
Figure 24. The finished knot is shown in Figure 25. The knot may be tied 
through a loose ring. 

Harness Hitch. — The harness hitch is used when vou wish to make a 





Figure 15 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



24:9 



loop at a point in a rope and still pull on both ends or on one end of the rope. It 
is made as follows : 

1. Hold the rope as shown in Figure 26. 

2. Move the right hand as shown by the arrow in Figure 26, thus putting 
the rope in the position shown in Figure 27. 




Figure 16 




Figure 17 



250 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



3. Move point B of the large loop as shown by the arrow in Figure 27 and 
pass it through loop A, when it should appear as shown in Figure 28. 

4. Complete the hitch by drawing it up tight as shown in Figure 29. 




Figure 18 



Figure 19 




Figure 20 



Figure 21 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



251 



Farmer's Loop. — The farmer's loop is used for the same purpose as the 
harness hitch. The method of making this loop was obtained from the Cornell 
Reading Course Leaflet, Vol. 1, No. 8, Page 74. 




Figure 22 




Figure 23 




Figure 24 



1. Make two round turns as shown in Figure 30. 

2. Pass part A under part B as shown by the arrow in Figure 30, and it 
should then appear as shown in Figure 31. 

3. Pass part C under part A as shown by the arrow in Figure 31, and it 
should then appear as shown in Figure 32. 

4. Pass part B under part C as shown by the arrow in Figure 32, and it 
should then appear as shown in Figure 33. 

5. Complete the loop by drawing it up tight as shown in Figure 33a. 



252 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Hitches. 
Sheep Shank. — The sheep shank is used for shortening a rope tem- 
porarily. It is made in the following manner : 

1. Grasp the rope as shown in Figure 34. 

2. Make a half hitch around the loop A, as shown in Figure 35, by moving 
the right hand as shown by the arrow in Figure 34. 




Figure 25 





Figure 26 



Figure 27 



3. Grasp loop B with the left hand and half hitch the long part of the rope 
around the loop as shown in Figure 36. 

4. Pull on the long ends of the rope, and the completed sheep shank should 
appear as shown in Figure 37. It may be made more secure by passing the long 
ends through the loops or by fastening the loops to the main parts. 

Half Hitch. — In Figure 38 the short end of the rope is half hitched around 
the other part. 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



253 



Timber Hitch. — The timber hitch is used for dragging and lifting logs 
and timbers, and is shown in Figure 39. To make it, take a half hitch and then 
give the short end one turn around the rope. 

Two Half Hitches. — Two half hitches constitute a useful fastening for 
dragging and lifting timbers and for fastening guy ropes. Figure 41 shows the two 
half hitches made, correctly and Figure 40 shows the incorrect way of making 
them. 




Figure 28 



Figure 29 




Figure 30 



Figure 31 



Timber Hitch and Half Hitch. — A timber hitch and half hitch combined 
make a more secure fastening than either the timber hitch or half hitch used sepa- 
rately, and are used for similar purposes. The combination is shown in Figure 42. 
Make the half hitch first and then the timber hitch. 



Splices. 
Short Splice. — The short splice is used to fasten two pieces of rope to- 
gether securely, but should not be used where the splice must run over sheaves or 



254 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



pulleys. In making the short splice with three-strand rope observe the following 
directions : 

1. Count off seven and a half turns from the ends to be spliced and tie 
strings around the ropes at the points thus found, as shown in Figure 43. 

2. Unlay the ends back to the strings and open each end as shown at A 
in Figure 44. The end shown at B, Figure 44, is not opened in the right way. No 
strand should pass between the other two. Be sure to have both ends opened as 
the one at A, for if you do not, the splice will never be correct. 




Figure 32 



Figure 33 




Figure 33A. 



3. Put the two ends together as shown in Figures 45 and 46, being sure to 
have a strand from one end between two strands from the other end. We now 
have three pairs of strands, C and D, forming one pair. Have the strand D 
from the left hand rope between yourself and C as shown in Figure 46. 

4. Start the twisting of the strands by tying each pair together with over- 
hand knots, having the direction of twist in the knot the same as the direction of 
twist in the strands, as shown by the arrow in Figure 47. 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



255 



5. Draw the three knots up tight by drawing each one up a little in turn, un- 
til they appear as shown in Figure 48. 




Figure 34 



Figure 35 




Figure 36 











V - "^ mm J mi ^ mtm ^.. 


W&$&&&&- 


, 











Figure 37 

6. Remove the string from the right hand end of the knots and continue the 
twisting with the aid of a marline spike as shown in Figure 49, giving one strand 
two turns, one strand three turns, and one strand four turns about the strands they 
are tied around. 

A marline spike is a piece of wood of the shape shown in Figure 49 and is 



256 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



used to separate the strands in splicing rope. This one has a hole in the end in 
which the strand of rope may be placed with ease when the ends are whipped as 
shown at N in Figure 49. 

Be sure you continue the twisting in the same direction as it has been started 
in tying the knots. Keep the same pair of strands together all the time and 
twist the strand you are working with up tight every time it is put around the 
other, as this is the only way to get a firm, compact splice. Try to have the 




Figure 38 



Figure 39 






Figure 40 



Figure 41 



Figure 42 



slope of the twist in each pair of strands the same as the slope of the twist in 
the yarns that make up the strand, as this will make a smoother splice. It is 
better to work with three pairs at the same time than to complete the twisting 
of each pair separately. 

7. Divide the strand that has been given two turns into two nearly equal 
parts, as shown at E in Figure 50, and continue splicing with one part, giving it 
about three turns more. 

8. Divide each of the other strands in the same way and give one part of 
each about three turns more. There should now be six half strands ending at 
different points along the splice as shown at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 in Figure 51. The 
strands are divided to make the splice taper out gradually. 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



257 



9. Remove the other string and finish that end of the splice in exactly the 
same way. 

10. Finish the splice by cutting off the loose ends a short distance from the 
rope, as shown in Figure 52. If you cut the ends off close, they are likely to work 




Figure 43 



Figure 44 



loose. If your work has been done properly, you should be able to untwist the 
splice at any point, and it should show three separate strands, each one being twice 
the size of the original strands at the center of the splice. 

Long Splices. — Long splices are used to fasten two pieces of rope to- 
gether securely and are especially adapted to ropes that must run over sheaves 
or pulleys in hoisting and transmission work, as the completed splices are 
the same size as the rope. In making one with three-strand rope: 






%C 






I 






^. 




HSr**** 


^%S*5|P 




- JP* 






Wi 


H 

IS 






% 

w3 



Figure 46 



Figure 45 



1. Count off sixteen turns (instead of seven and one-half as shown in 
figure 43 for making the short splice) from the ends to be spliced, and tie 
strings tightly around the ropes at the two points thus found. 



258 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



2. Open and put the ends together in exactly the same way as shown in 
figures 4-5 and 46. 

3. Select the pairs as shown in figure 46. 

4. Twist two pairs together as shown at A and B in figure 53.' 





■ Hf : "■■■ 


jf^ 








■.;— * 


-•^fe-K. 








\ ^M 


f M 






\m 



Figure 47 

5. Observing the cautions given below, remove the right hand string and 
start the splicing by unlaying strand C and laying D in its place as shown in 
figure 54. Continue this process until you have left only enough of strand 
D to reach a little more than three turns, as shown in figure 55. Then half-hitch 
D around the rope so as to hold itself and C from untwisting, as shown in 
figure 56. 




Figure 48 



Figure 49 



C and D are on the left of Figure 56. The rope is usually turned as it is 
easier to work toward the right hand ; or else the workman gets on the opposite 
side of the rope. 

Be sure that the ends of the ropes are forced closely together when you 
begin splicing. Be sure to keep the strand you are relaying, as D in figure 54, 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



Zo 9 



twisted very tightly. As you unlay one strand, as C in figure 51, relay the other 
in its place immediately ; that is, keep them close together. 

6. Untwist the strands at A, in figure 55, remove the other string, and 
then unlay one of the strands and lay the other in its place exactly as you did 
with C and D, but work in the opposite direction from the center of the 
splice as shown in figure 56. 




Figure 50 



Figure 51 



7. Cut off the middle pair of strands, as shown at B in figure 57, leaving 
enough of each one to reach at least three turns further. 

8. Unlay each strand of this pair three turns from the center point E, 
as shown in figure 58. ' 

9. Divide each strand into two equal or nearly equal parts, as shown in 
figure 59. 

10. Relay one part of each strand three turns again and tie an overhand 
knot, as shown in figure 60. Tie this knot exactly as shown, which is just 
like the start of the short splice. 




Figure 52 



11. Draw this knot up tight and then continue twisting these two parts 
of strands together as shown in figure 61. The direction of twist and the 
method are the same as in making the short splice. Strand F should end at 
K and strand G should end at H as shown in figure 62. 

Be sure to keep the parts of strands twisted up tight. Do not twist either 
part of a strand around one of the other whole strands. Have the slope of the 
twist the same as the slope of the twist in the other whole strands for these two 
parts make a whole strand again. 



260 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



12. Cut the ends of the parts of strands off a short distance from the 
rope, as shown in figure 63. 

13. Finish one of the other pairs of strands by first loosening the hitch 
and cutting off the long strand, leaving it equal in length to the short one as 
shown in figure 64. The remainder of the work of finishing this pair is exactly 
the same as for the center pair, starting with step No. 8. 




Figure 53 



Figure 54 



14. Finish the third pair in a similar way and the completed splice 
should appear like figure 65. There are two parts of strands ending at each of 
the points M, N, O, P, R and S. 

In making a long splice with four-strand rope: 

1. Count off twenty-two turns of the strands, instead of sixteen as in mak- 
ing the long splice in the three-strand rope. Be sure to pass over three strands 
at each count instead of two, and tie strings tightly around the ropes at the 
two points thus found. 




Figure 55 



2. Spread the strands out from the centers of the ropes and put the ends 
together, allowing the cores to pass out on one side, as shown in figure 6Q. 

3. Select the pairs of strands in the way shown in figure 46, but there are 
now four pairs. 

4. Twist three pairs together as shown at A, B and C in figure 67. 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



261 



5. Observing the precautions given in step 5 of the directions for making 
a long splice in a three-strand rope, remove the right hand string and unlay 
strand 8 eighteen turns, and lay strand 7 in its place as shown in figure 68. 

6. Remove the left hand string, unlay strand 3 eighteen turns, and lay 
strand 4 in its place, as shown in figure 68. 




Figure 56 



Figure 57 



7. Unlay strand 2 six turns and lay strand 1 in its place as shown in 
figure 69. 

8. Unlay strand 5 six turns and lay strand 6 in its place as shown in 
figure 69. 

9. Cut off all the long strands, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 8, leaving enough of each 
one for three more turns. 




Figure 58 



Figure 59 



10. Finish each pair of strands at the points D, E, F and G, figure 69, 
using the methods shown in figures 58-63. 

In splicing transmission rope the ends of the half-strands are usually 
fastened as shown in figures 70 and 71. In this method one part is divided 
and the other passed through as shown at H in figure 70. The end that has 
not been divided is then tucked under the two adjacent strands as shown at 
K in figure 71. Cut the ends off a short distance from the rope. A four- 
strand splice finished in this way is shown in figure 72. 



262 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Blocks and Tackle. 

A sheave or pulley or set of pulleys mounted within a shell or frame to 
which is fixed a hook, eye or ring at one end for attaching - it to a fixed or 
moving object and often a becket, consisting of an eye or some similar fasten- 
ing, at the other end for attaching one end of the rope, is called a block. 




Figure 60 



Figure 61 



A tackle is a mechanism of ropes, pulley-blocks, hooks, etc., for raising, 
lowering and moving heavy objects. Some of the common names applied to a 
tackle consisting of, two blocks and a rope are : fall and tackle, set of falls, set 
of blocks and pair of blocks. 

That ply of the rope of a tackle to which the power is applied is called 
the fall-rope. 

The block from which the fall-rope passes is called the fall-block. 

The block shown in figure 73 is a double block with a becket. 

The lower block in figure 74 is a double block without a becket. 




Figure 62 



Figure 63 



The fall-block in figure 76 is a triple block without a becket. 
The fall-block B in figure 77 is a single block with a becket. 
The lower block A in figure 77 is a single block without a becket. 

Reeving Blocks. — Reeving blocks is the process of passing the rope 
through the blocks in the proper way so as to get them ready for use. In 
any set of blocks one of them has a becket to which one end of the rope must 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



263 



be fastened. If both blocks have the same number of sheaves, the one having 
the becket is the fall-block. If one block has one sheave less than the other, the 
becket must be on the block with the smallest number of sheaves, but the other 
is the fall-block. 




Figure 64 



Figure 65 



In reeving blocks by the directions which follow, the rope is passed 
through the blocks in the direction opposite to that in which it runs when 
the blocks are being used to lift or pull. This is to avoid the necessity of 
pulling all the rope through the blocks in order to get them reeved. 

A set of blocks in which both blocks have the same number of sheaves 
is reeved .in the following way : 




Figure 66 



Figure 67 



1. Start with the block having the becket, the fall-block, by passing the 
rope over the sheave which is farthest from the becket as shown in figure 73. 
If the becket is in the middle the rope may be passed over either outside sheave. 

2. Pass the rope over the proper outside sheave in the other block and 
then over the next sheave in the block, having the becket as shown in figure 74. 

3. Now pass the rope back and forth from block to block, always passing 



26-1 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



the rope over the sheave next to the ones the rope has been passed over, 
until all the sheaves are filled, and then fasten the end that you have been 
passing over the sheaves to the becket with a spliced eye, like the one shown in 
When completed the work should appear as shown in figure 75. 



figure 21 




Figure 68 

A set of blocks in which the block having the becket has one sheave 
less than the other is reeved in the following way : 

1. Start with the block without the becket, the fall-block, by passing the 
rope over one of the outside sheaves, as number 1 in figure 76. 




Figure C9 



2. Pass the end of the rope in the right direction over the sheave in the 
other block which is farthest from the becket, as number 2 in figure 76. 

Start in the same way even if the block having the becket has onl} r one 
sheave. If the becket is in the middle of the block, start with either outside 
sheave. 

3. Now pass the rope back and forth from block to block, always pass- 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



265 



ing the rope over the sheave next to the ones that the rope has been passed 
over until all the sheaves are filled and then fasten the end that yotrhave been 
passing over the sheaves to the becket with a spliced eye made as is the one 
shown in figure 21. The completed work should appear as shown in figure 76. 




Figure 70 



Figure 71 



Lifting Force of Blocks. — The load that can be lifted or moved with a 
set of blocks by applying a certain force to the fall-rope depends on (1) the 
number of plies of rope leading from the block that is fastened to the load; (2) 
the direction of pull when the fall-rope leads from the block fastened to the load ; 
(3) the amount of force necessary to overcome the friction in the sheaves and 




Figure 72 



the stiffness of the rope; and (4) the ultimate strength of the rope and parts 
of the blocks, for as soon as we strain any part to the breaking point, the blocks 
will give way. 



266 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Suppose that the two plies of rope leading from block A in Figure 77 are cut 
at the points a and b, and then a spring scale like the one shown in Figure 78 is 
tied between the ends of each ply. Now if a pull of 100 pounds is exerted on the 
fall-rope, each of the scales will show it is holding a force of approximately 
100 pounds, the small error being due to friction and the stiffness of the rope. 




Figure 73 



Figure 74 



This would show that all parts of the rope are under the same strain or tension. 
Since each of the scales lifts on block A with a force which is nearly equal to 
100 pounds, the block A will lift on a load with a force which is little less 
than 200 pounds. We thus see that the block A lifts with a force which is nearly 
equal to the pull on the fall-rope times the number of plies leading from block A. 
If the pull on the fall-rope is 100 pounds and directly downward, parallel to the 
other plies, we then have three plies pulling down on block B, so that block B 
pulls down on its support with a force of approximately 300 pounds. It is thus 
seen that the pull exerted by the fall-block on its support is greater than the pull 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



267 



or lifting force exerted by the other block on the load, by an amount which is 
equal to the pull on. the fall-rope. 

By applying the same method of reasoning to Figure 75, a weight may be 
lifted which is nearly equal to four times the pull on the fall-rope for there are 
four plies leading from the block which would be attached to the load. The 




Figure 75 



Figure 76 



fall-block will pull down on- its support with a force which is nearly five times 
the pull on the fall-rope. 

In a similar way by using a set of blocks like those shown in Figure 76 a 
weight may be lifted which is approximately five times the pull on the fall-rope.. 
The pull-down by the fall-block on its support will be nearly six times the pull on 
the fall-rope. 

The lifting power of a set of blocks containing any number of sheaves may 
be calculated by applying the same method of reasoning to it. 



268 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



The following table gives the ratios of load to a fall-rope pull for tackles 
consisting- of two blocks : 





Figure 
Number 


Number Sheaves 






Diameter of Rop 


e in Inches 








Fall- Movable 
block block 


% 


v% 


1 


1M 


m 


1M 


2 


77 


1 1 


1.93 


1.92 


1.93 


1.92 


1.91 


1.91 


1.91 






79 


2 1 


2.73 


2.6S 


2.74 


2.68 


2.67 


2.64 


2.65 


75 


2 2 


3.48 


3.37 


3.50 


3.37 


3.36 


3.30 


3.32 


76 


3 2 


4.12 


3.95 


4.16 


3.95 


3.93 


3.84 


3.87 



Compiled from the American Civil Engineers' Pocket Book. 

Example. — Suppose we wish to know how much can be lifted by a pull 
of 150 pounds on the fall-rope when the fall-block has two sheaves, the movable 
block two sheaves, and the rope is one inch in diameter. 

Looking at the table, we find that in the second line from the bottom each 
Dlock has two sheaves. Then following along this line to the column for one-inch 
rope, we find the number of 3.50. If we multiply 150 by 3.50, we obtain 525, 
which is the number of pounds that can be lifted. 

Moving Heavy Objects. — In the previous discussions regarding the lift- 
ing force of blocks it has been shown that the fall-block pulls down on its support 
with a force which is greater than that exerted by the other block on the object 
to be lifted. It is then advisable, if possible, when heavy objects such as build- 
ings are to be moved, that the fall-block be fastened to the object to be moved. 
The pull on the fall-rope should also be directly toward the fixed block. In this 
way all of the pull exerted on the fall-block will be in the same direction and it 
will have a greater effect on the object to be moved. When the fall-block is not 
fastened to the object to be moved, the pull on the fall-rope may be in any direc- 
tion, without changing the direction or amount of the pull exerted on the object 
to be moved. 

Maximum and Safe Loads. — The maximum or heaviest load that can be 
lifted with a set of blocks depends on the strength of the rope and parts of the 
blocks. The strength of a set of blocks depends so much on care and wear after 
they have been used for a short time that it is not possible to give any reliable 
figures. If the strength of new blocks is proportional to the number of plies of 
rope that will lead from them, then we can find the safe load they will lift using 
the table previously given. If in the table we find the safe load for the size and 
kind of rope that is used and multiply this figure by the number of plies leading 
from the block that is to be attached to the load, we shall obtain the safe load 
that can be lifted. 

Example. — Find the safe load for a set of new blocks like those in Figure 
79, if a three-quarter-inch manila rope is used. 

The lower block has three plies leading from it. 

3X650=1,950 

Then 1.950 pounds is the safe load that can be lifted. 

When a set of blocks becomes weakened by wear, and lack of care, the safe 



ROPE AND ITS USE 



269 



load that can be lifted is largely a matter of good judgment. There is one rule 
that should always be observed in lifting heavy objects and that is, never stand 
beneath the object or in any place where it can injure you if it falls. 




Figure 77 



Theoretical Discussion. 

Let P = the force applied to the fall-rope 

A = the angle between the fall-rope and the other plies of rope 
W = the weight lifted 
N = the number of plies of rope leading from the lower block 

(not fall-block) 
V = the velocity of the weight W 
v = the velocity of P 



270 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



Then in all cases where friction, etc., are neglected. 
W = NP 
VW = vP 

v = NV 





Figure 78 



Figure 79 



When the fall-rope pulls at an angle to the other plies, the force exerted by 
the fall-block on its support and directly towards the other blocks is W-f-P cos A 
= (N + cos A) P. This is a maximum and is equal to (N + 1) P .= W 
+ P when cos A = 1 ; i. e., A = O. Then in all cases where the fall-block is 
the moving block; i. e., the block attached to the load, the angle A should be 
zero in order to get a maximum force exerted in one direction. If angle A is not 



ROPE AND ITS USE 271 

zero, there is a component equal to P in A exerted at right angles to the force 
(N + cos A) P. 

Information for Ordering Blocks. — Common wood blocks like those 
shown in this bulletin have a wood shell, iron sheaves, steel pins for the sheaves, 
and iron straps that pass through the hook and through which the steel pin 
passes. The becket is formed by the extension of the ends of one or more of the 
straps through which is passed a bolt carrying a thimble. 

For very heavy work such as stump pulling, railroad and bridge work, blocks 
may be had with extra heavy hooks and straps and these also have roller bear- 
ings for the sheaves. They may also be had with a shackle or device instead 
of a hook. 

Blocks made of steel may be had in all sizes and strengths. 

If blocks are wanted for wire rope, it must be so stated when ordering them 
as the sheaves are of a different style and the general construction of the blocks 
is different. 

In ordering common blocks the size or rope, number of sheaves, and whether 
with or without becket should be stated. If extra heavy roller-bushed blocks 
with shackles are wanted, these requirements should be stated. 



HANDY HOME HELPS. 



KITCHEN HELPS. 

Butter Paddles. 

To keep butter from sticking to the butter paddle, rub salt well over the pad- 
dle before using. 

Butter. 

To Keep Butter Firm. — A cloth which has been wrung out of cold water 
and then placed over the top and all about the butter dish will keep butter 
almost as firm as it could be kept in a refrigerator. Butter may be kept firm in 




Handy Butter Worker. 

This slopes toward the narrow end, 
enough to drain readily. A piece of lead 
pipe "A" many be inserted for this purpose. 
The working bar may be easily inserted into 
the hole at the end. The bar is shaped so 
that two flat sides meet at right angle and 
the other sides form a half round. 




Delivery or Shipping Box for 
Butter. 

Cut shows how one box is 
placed inside the other. Put a 
deep rectangular can of fine ice 
in the middle of the box: then 
place the pound prints around it. 



this way even in a hot kitchen if placed in a draft. The draft increases the evap- 
oration — the cause of the firmness. 

To Tell Pure Butter. — To determine if butter is pure, put a little in a 
teaspoon and hold it over a flame. If pure it will boil, if adulterated it will sput- 
ter as it heats. 

Butter and Sugar, to Cream. — Scald a bowl with boiling water then 
mix butter and sugar. It will then cream very easily. 

272 



HANDY HOME HELPS 273 

Butter, to Keep. — Work it free from milk. Salt it good. Pack in earthen 
crocks or jars, sprinkling thin coverings of sugar between the layers. This will 
keep it fresh for four to six months. 

Butter will remain fresh much longer if it is put into a crock containing 
charcoal. 

Wring a cloth out of cold water and cover the butter dish to keep the con- 
tents from becoming strong. 

Rancid Butter. — Wash in lime water and rinse in clear cold water to 
sweeten. 

Wash butter first with fresh milk, then with water, and work out. 

Add half teaspoonful chloride of lime to each two pounds of butter in hot 
water bath, mixing with it some pure animal charcoal. Stir well, then strain 
through a clean funnel. This takes out the charcoal and the butter is sweetened. 

When butter becomes rancid sweeten it by soaking in water to which a hand- 
ful of bicarbonate of soda has been added. Then wash it in sweet milk which 
can be used for cooking purposes. 

Coffee. 

To Economize on Coffee. — Soak the coffee for some time after grinding, 
and before boiling. Of course it should not be soaked in a metal pot for this 
would give an unpleasant flavor. 

To Insure Good Coffee. — Keep the pots bright on the inside. This may 
be done by boiling soapy water and washing soda in them. 

To Keep Tea and Coffee Fresh. — Each should be kept in a closed chest or 
other closed vessel. 

To Clear Coffee. — When a pound of coffee is bought it should be placed 
in a bowl and three eggs added. Mix these thoroughly and dry on a pan in the 
oven. Put back in coffee box. The coffee will clear without adding an egg to it 
each time. By doing this, about half the cost of serving clear coffee is eliminated. 

Egg shells dropped into the coffee pot in the place of the egg will clear coffee. 

To Sweeten Coffee Pots. — Almost fill with cold water adding a teaspoon- 
ful of powdered borax and a lump of washing soda. Let come to a boil slowly, 
then empty and wash in good soapy water. 

Coffee Percolator. — Take old tin wick holder from an oil stove, remove 
wick and boil it half an hour in soda water. Clean thoroughly. Bind down the 
prongs that held the wick. Insert an upturned glass lid and hang by wires in old 
coffee pot. This makes a fine coffee percolator. 

Eggs. 

Egg Test. — Go into a dark room and hold egg up to a candle or light. 
If transparent or easily seen through in the center, it is fresh. If dark colored in 
the center it is not fresh. 

To Beat. — Add just a little salt to the whites and it will make the beating 
quicker and easier. 

Egg Shells. — They are good for cleaning purposes and should be powdered 
or broken into small pieces if desired for bottles. 



274 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

To Keep Yolks Fresh. — A yolk of an egg can be kept fresh several days if 
a little cold water is poured over it. 

To Make a White of Egg Go Twice As Far. — Beat the egg as usual, first 
adding a pinch of salt and one tablespoonful of water. Also add one table- 
spoonful or two of sugar when light. Have a kettle of boiling water ready and 
drop this in until set. It will be puffed up twice as much and can then be 
spread as usual. 

To Prevent Whites from Breaking in Poaching Eggs. — Add a few drops 
of vinegar to the water. This also keeps the whites from spreading too much. 

Quick Way to Beat Whites of Eggs for Frosting. — Add one teaspoonful 
of cold water and beat fast. 

To Swallow. — Break it in a slender glass and swallow whole. It goes 
down easily. 

To Preserve Eggs for Winter. — Get a water-tight barrel. Fill it half full 
of a mixture consisting of two pints of fresh slaked lime and one pint of salt to 
a pailful of water. Eggs may be placed in this mixture any time after June. This 
method is also reliable. Eggs have been kept two years in this way. 

Prepare a mixture of ten parts water to one part water glass. Drop fresh, 
dry, clean eggs into the mixture. When the vessel is filled, put in a place where it 
will not freeze. Every druggist handles water glass (silicate of soda). The lady 
sending in this recipe says that she has used it for years and has always found the 
last egg taken out in the spring quite as good as the first one used. The up-to-date 
house wife can take advantage of the opportunity to secure eggs at a moderate 
price and preserve them by this method. She can then keep up her table at a 
reduced expense. 

Fruits. 

Canning. — Picking fruit for canning. Rain-soaked fruit does not jelly 
well. Pick firm, ripe fruit for pickling. 

In preserving, add 2 l /> teaspoonfuls of peroxide of hydrogen to each quart 
of fruit preserved. 

Preserving With Dry Sugar. — Place fruit in thick layers of sugar. Leave 
for some time, then wipe off sugar and wash fruit completely drying it. 

Canning Without Sugar- — Put juices in glass cans set on strips of wood 
in the boiling pan. Fill with water, leave uncovered. Boil water and continue until 
the juice is at boiling point. Then close bottles but do not seal. 

Sun Process of Canning. — It is understood by many that setting jellies 
in a sunny place will save considerable sugar. After filling glasses before covering, 
set on window ledge. A little sugar sifted on top of the glass will give added 
flavor. 

Always dry fruit and vegetables in the sun if possible, and the fruit flavor 
will be retained. 

Drying Fruit. — Tie slats or screens close to the ceiling and place sliced 
fruit on it to dry. The heat goes to the ceiling and therefore is well used. 

To Restore Rubber Bands. — One cup ammonia and two cups of water. 
Soak any rubber goods in this and they will become elastic again. 

To Take Corks From Bottles. — While filling with juices or catsup put a 



HANDY HOME HELPS 275 

loop of stout cord around the cork, then insert in bottle leaving a couple inches of 
cord hanging out. Seal with wax. When wanted, the cork can easily be removed 
by pulling the cord. 

To Keep Apples. — Fall apples may be put in pits lined with straw. Do 
not cover for several days. Then cover with sand leaving several air holes. 

Cranberries. — Fill butter or lard tub with fresh cranberries and water. 
Close cover tightly. Put in basement. 

Lemons. — These may be kept fresh by wrapping closely and packing in 
dark, cool jar. Also by placing in can of cold water. Change water daily. 

Lemons and Oranges. — Dry thoroughly and wrap in clean tissue paper. 
See that no skin of one orange touches that of another. 

Peaches or Pears. — Pick before they mellow, wipe and wrap in separate 
papers. Keep in cool place below 60 degrees. 

To Dry Currants and Grapes. — Dip bunches in a mixture of egg whites 
and gum arabic. Let them drip a while, roll in powdered sugar, then put in heated 
oven and turn them often until dried. Several bunches at a time can be handled 
on a wire screen. 

Figs. — Lay ripe figs in hot sun to dry. They can be packed in paper 
lined boxes. 

Grapes. — Pick and lay on wooden trays placed in rows slanting toward 
the sun. In turning, merely place an empty tray on top and turn over leaving 
grapes with undried side toward the sun. 

Peaches. — Take mellow peaches, put in hot water so they will peel easily. 
Quarter and place on drying racks or papers in the sun. 

Brown sugar will make grapefruit sweeter than powdered or granulated 
sugar. 

Jelly Making. — Save all olive bottles and glasses as well as the tops for 
use during canning season. 

Acid fruits attack aluminum while being cooked in such dishes, so use good 
clean and unchipped enamel ware. Wooden stirring spoons, forks, and ladles are 
fine for kitchen use. 

To Learn If Fruit Juice Will Make Jelly. — Some fruits are lacking in 
pectin, the part which is necessary to make them "jell." To test fruit juice to see 
if it has the necessary pectin in it, add a small amount of a 15 percent solution 
of grain alcohol to an equal amount of fruit juice. If the mixture remains 
clear it will not jell; otherwise the juice will make the jelly. 

Orange Peel. — Dry thoroughly and save orange peelings. Then in the 
winter evenings turn out the lights, place some of the dried peelings on live coals 
and a very pretty effect is obtained. 

Raisins. — Always boil in water, then squeeze and the seeds will come out 
easily 

Rotting Apples. — Sort, cut out spots and peel. Then cook. They will 
keep as sauce and will save considerable fruit. 

Sugar Substitute. — For acid fruits add a little baking soda to the cooking 
fruit and it sweetens them very much. Less sugar need be added. 



276 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE- ENGINEERING 



Stone Cherries. — Take a large sized hairpin. Insert the loop of hairpin 
into the cherry close to the stem and draw out the stone. It comes out clean 
with stem and leaves the cherry whole. Once this way is used the cherry pitter 
will not be used again because this method is so much quicker and leaves the 
cherry in fine condition. 

MEATS 

Beef. 

The numbers on this picture locate various cuts of beef : 




No. 1 Porterhouse. 
No. 2 Sirloin. 
No. 3 Round. 
No. 4 Top Sirloin. 



No. 5 Rib Roast 
No 6 Rump. 
No. 7 Cross Rib. 
No. S Flank. 



No. 9 Chuck. 
No. 10 Blade. 
No. 11 Shoulder. 
No. 12 Neck. 



No. 13 Brisket. 
No. 14 Plate. 
No. 15 Navel. 
No. 16 Shin. 



Do you know that the less tender cuts are more nourishing than the more 
expensive cuts ? 

Do you know that the less expensive cuts, if properly cooked and seasoned, 
are mighty good eating? 

Flank steak costs much less than top sirloin or round steak, but it makes an 
excellent roast. It can also be pot-roasted or used as chopped meat. 

Chuck or round steak costs much less than porterhouse or sirloin and can 
be broiled in the same manner. 

Chuck roast costs much less than rib roast and will make just as appetizing 
a dish if the bone is removed, the meat rolled and then roasted. 

The beef neck is juicy and well flavored. It rarely sells for over 16 cents a 
pound and makes a good pot roast and excellent stews and soups. 

The cross rib makes an excellent pot roast and there is no waste. 

Shin of beef makes a good "beef a la mode.'' Cut it up the same as for 
stew ; brown the pieces in hot fat ; then add water ; cook in a pot the same as pot 
roast, and serve with the gravy. By browning the meat in hot fat you retain its 
juices and this adds greatly to the flavor of the dish. 



HANDY HOME HELPS 277 

Shin of beef makes a very nourishing soup and the meat can be taken from 
the pot afterward and served with horseradish sauce. 

In broiling or roasting the less tender cuts, if you are afraid that they will not 
be as tender as you would like, they can be made tender if treated in the following 
simple manner: Mix two tablespoonfuls of oil and one tablespoonful of vinegar; 
brush this over the meat and let the meat stand for half an hour before cooking it. 

If you buy a rib roast of beef, have your butcher cut the rib end off so that 
you can use it for making soup. If it is left on and roasted with the rest of the 
meat it is largely wasted. 

In corned beef, the flank piece, the navel piece, the plate piece and the brisket 
piece cost the least. These cuts are much more juicy and palatable than the rump 
piece, and the left over portions can be used to make a splendid hash. 

Be sure that the beef you buy has a red, rosy color ; that it is well streaked 
with fat; that the fat is yellow white; that the lean is firm and elastic and 
scarcely moist when touched with the finger. 

Do not buy beef that is wet or flabby or that looks pink or purple as it lies on 
the counter. 

You work hard to earn a dollar. Use the information contained in this circu- 
lar to help save part of that dollar. 

Little vinegar added to water makes meat tender. 

Add a pinch of baking powder and the dressing will not be heavy. 

Turn roasts with a big spoon instead of a fork and the juices will not be let out. 

After roasting for twenty minutes lower the temperature of the oven and 
the juices will not be boiled away. 

To fry thin bacon without it curling up, put a teaspoonful of water in pan 
while frying. 

Allow twenty minutes to the pound for roasting meat. For three pounds 
allow one hour. 

MEATS ON THE FARM. 
Keeping of Meats. 

Cooling the Carcass. — While it is almost impossible to get the best con- 
ditions for handling meat on the farm, a knowledge of the best principles may 
aid in getting a better quality of meat. It is very important that the carcasses be 
cooled soon after slaughtering, and yet that they be not allowed to freeze. While 
the temperature can not well be controlled on the farm, it is possible to slaughter 
when the weather is favorable to the proper cooling of the carcass. If during the 
winter season choose a day when there is prospect for cooling the carcass before 
the surface freezes. The most desirable temperature for cooling meat is 34° to 
40° F., and an approach to these temperatures will give good results. 

In summer seasons it is best to dress the animal in the evening, leaving the 
carcass in the cpen air over night and carrying it to a cool, dark cellar before the 
flies are out in the morning. Very often a cool room in the barn can be used for 
the purpose if made dark. There should be no fresh paint, tar, kerosene, or other 



278 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

like substance around, however, as freshly killed meat absorbs such flavors read- 
ily. Cooling is often hastened by splitting the carcass into halves or even into 
small pieces. It is best, however, not to divide the carcass until the meat is firmly 
set unless absolutely necessary to prevent it from souring. Stripping out the leaf 
lard materially aids in quickly cooling the hog carcass. For the best results in 
cooling meat, the air should be dry, as well as of low temperature ; and free cir- 
culation aids greatly in carrying away foul odors and mold spores. 

It is also important that flies and insects be kept away from the meat. If it is 
fly blown, maggots will soon appear and it will be very difficult to save the meat. 

Keeping Fresh Meat. 

Cold Storage. — Meat used while fresh is more nutritious and palatable 
than salted or cured meats. It is therefore desirable to use as much of it uncured 
as possible. It is very difficult to keep meat fresh during the summer months 
without the use of ice, and even then but little can be handled at one time on the 
ordinary farm. Where a room or family refrigerator can be kept at a tempera- 
ture of 40° or less, with good ventilation and circulation of air, fresh meat can be 
kept for a week or ten days. It is very important that the circulation be free and 
the air dry. Moisture in a refrigerator tends to develop wet mold or slime, and a 
little decay soon contaminates the whole piece. Less difficulty will be experienced 
in keeping fresh meat if it is kept in a room where the temperature is high and the 
air dry than where the temperature is low and the air damp. 

Where an ice house is filled each year a small portion of it may be partitioned 
off as a cold storage room. With the ice properly packed on three sides of it, and 
with good drainage, this makes a very satisfactory place for keeping meat, and it 
may also be used for storing butter and other perishable products. 

In the North meat is kept during the cold season by freezing. A carcass is 
cut up into quarters, or even smaller pieces, and hung in an outbuilding, where it 
will remain frozen solid. When a portion is wanted it may be cut off with a saw. 
If the meat is taken into a cold room and slowly thawed out the flavor is only 
slightly injured. No more should be taken in at one time than is wanted for im- 
mediate use. Repeated freezing and thawing are injurious to the flavor and 
quality of the meat ; hence the importance of keeping it where the temperature 
will remain sufficiently low to prevent thawing. 

Insects should not be allowed to get at the meat. For this reason a dark, 
cool cellar is the best place for keeping fresh meat on the farm. The cellar should 
be clean and free from odors or the meat will become tainted. 

Snow Packing. — Freezing the pieces and packing them in snow is a better 
way of keeping meat than freezing the carcass and thawing to remove a portion 
as wanted. The carcass should be cut into steaks, roasts, and boiling meat. All 
trimming for table use should be done before allowing the meat to freeze. Lay 
each piece out to freeze separately, where it will not come in contact with other 
meat. Secure a box large enough to hold it all and put a layer of dry snow at the 
bottom. When the meat is frozen put in a layer, packing it so that no two pieces 
touch. Cover this with a laver of snow and lav alternate lavers of snow and meat 



HANDY HOME HELPS 279 

until the box is filled. Set the box in an outside shed where it will not be subject 
to sudden changes of temperature. For convenience in getting the meat when 
wanted it is well to pack the steaks in one section or end of the box and the 
roasts and stews in another. It will not then be necessary to disturb anything but 
the piece desired when a supply is needed. Use only dry snow in packing, be sure 
the meat is frozen solid, and it can then be kept through the winter unless there 
is a very warm spell. This method is applicable only to localities where snow and 
continued dry cold weather prevail during the winter months. 

Cooking. — Partial cooking and packing in jars is also resorted to as a 
means of preserving meat in some localities. This method is applicable to a larger 
territory than either of the methods already given. It will be the most satisfac- 
tory in the keeping of fresh pork in any instance. Slice the loin and side meat 
or any portion of the carcass desired and fry until a little more than half done. 
Pack the slices as closely as possible in a stone jar and cover with hot lard. As 
the meat is wanted for use it may be removed from the jar and warmed up. If 
the jar is to stand for any length of time after it has been opened without using 
from it, it will be best to cover the top over again with the lard. It is better to use 
several small jars than one large one. They should be kept in a cool, dark cellar 
to insure safe-keeping of the meat. 

When meat is to be kept for only a few days a light coat of fine salt applied 
to the surface will be found sufficient if the meat is kept in a dark and compara- 
tively cool place. Usually when meat is to be salted, however, it will be best to 
put it in brine of sufficient strength to preserve it for several weeks. 

Curing Meats. 

Meat must be properly and thoroughly cooled to insure good keeping qualities 
when cured. If salted before the animal heat is out, the shrinkage of the muscles 
causes the retention of injurious gases, giving an offensive odor to the meat. 
Neither should meat be frozen when salted, as the action of the frost will prevent 
the proper penetration of the salt and uneven curing will result. It is important, 
also, that curing should begin as soon as the meat is cooled and while it is still 
fresh. Tainted meat may be cured so that it will keep, but nothing in the line of 
preservatives can bring back the natural flavor when it is once lost. The safest 
rule to follow is to salt meat as soon as the animal heat is out, and before it freezes 
or starts to decay. Ordinarily twenty-four to thirty-six hours after slaughtering 
will allow sufficient time for cooling. 

Vessels for Curing. 

A clean hard-wood barrel is a suitable vessel in which to cure meat. A barrel 
made for the purpose is best, but where it can not be had a molasses or syrup 
barrel will answer. 

A kerosene barrel that has been burned out and used for a water barrel for 
some time is often used for a meat barrel. The important point is to have it clean 
and tight enough to prevent leakage. A large stone jar is the best vessel that can 
be had. One holding 25 or 30 gallons is expensive, however, and must be carefully 



280 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

handled to prevent breakage. The jar is more easily cleaned than a barrel and 
is in every way preferable if the first cost can be afforded. A barrel or jar that 
has once held meat may be used again and again unless meat has spoiled in it. 
If used repeatedly it will be necessary to scald it out thoroughly each time before 
packing with fresh meat. 

Preservatives. 

Salt and sugar or molasses are the preservatives most commonly used, and 
are considered the only ones necessary for perfect curing and the finest quality 
of cured meats. Borax, boracic acid, formalin, salicylic acid, and other chemicals 
are sometimes used in preserving meats, but they are considered by so many au- 
thorities to be harmful to the health of the consumer that their use should be 
avoided. The proprietary preparations put on the market are also dangerous to 
health. They are more active than salt, and the chief reason for their use is to 
hasten the curing process. 

Salt is an astringent, and when applied alone to meat renders it very hard and 
dry. Its action is first to draw out the meat juices. In a few days it will con- 
tract and harden the muscle fibers, thus shrinking the volume of meat. Saltpeter 
is used to preserve the natural color of the flesh or to give a reddish color, but it 
is harmful to the health. It is even more astringent than salt. Sugar is not an 
astringent and its presence in the pickle softens the muscle fibres and improves the 
flavor of the meat. Saleratus (baking soda) is used in small quantities to sweeten 
the brine. In warm weather a small quantity will aid in preventing the brine from 
spoiling. 

Curing in Brine and Dry Curing Compared. 

Brine-cured meats are best for farm use, for the reason that a suitable place 
for dry curing is not usually obtainable. It is also less trouble to pack the meat 
in a barrel and pour on a brine than to go over it three or four times to rub in the 
salt. The brining method also gives better protection from insects and vermin. 
Trouble is sometimes experienced in keeping brine, but if pure water is used and 
directions followed in making the brine there should be no difficulty in keeping it 
for a reasonable length of time. During warm weather brine should be closely 
watched. If it becomes "ropy," like syrup, it should be boiled or new brine made. 
A cool, moist cellar is the best place for brine curing. Dry curing may be done 
successfully in a cellar also, though even more moisture is needed to effect a thor- 
ough cure. The cellar should be dark and tight enough to prevent flies and vermin 
from damaging the meat. 

Recipes for Curing. 

Corned Beef. — The pieces commonly used for corning are the plate, rump, 
cross ribs, and brisket, or in other words the cheaper cuts of meat. The loin, ribs, 
and other fancy cuts are more often used fresh, and since there is more or less 
waste of nutrients in corning, this is well. The pieces for corning should be cut 
into convenient-sized joints, say, 5 or 6 inches square. It should be the aim to 
cut them all about the same thickness so that they will make an even layer in the 
barrel. 



HANDY HOME HELPS 281 

Meat from fat animals makes choicer corned beef than that from poor ani- 
mals. When the meat is thoroughly cooled it should be corned as soon as possible, 
as any decay in the meat is likely to spoil the brine during the corning process. 
Under no circumstances should the meat be brined while it is frozen. Weigh 
out the meat and allow 8 pounds of sait to each 100 pounds; sprinkle a layer of 
salt one-quarter of an inch in depth over the bottom of the barrel; pack in as 
closely as possible the cuts of meat, making a layer 5 or 6 inches in thickness; 
then put on a layer of salt, following that with another layer of meat ; repeat until 
the meat and salt have all been packed in the barrel, care being used to reserve salt 
enough for a good layer over the top. After the package has stood over night add 
for every 100 pounds of meat, 1 pounds of sugar, 2 ounces of baking soda. Three 
gallons more of water should be sufficient to cover this quantity. In case more or 
less-than 100 pounds of meat is to be corned, make the brine in the proportion 
given. A loose board cover, weighted down with a heavy stone or piece of iron, 
should be put on the meat to keep all of it under the brine. In case any should 
project, rust would start and the brine would spoil in a short time. 

It is not necessary to boil the brine except in warm weather. If the meat has 
been corned during the winter and must be kept into the summer season, it would 
be well to watch the brine closely during the spring, as it is more likely to spoil at 
that time than at any other season. If the brine appears to be ropy or does not 
drip freely from the finger when immersed and lifted, it should be turned off and 
new brine added, after carefully washing the meat. The sugar or molasses in the 
brine has a tendency to ferment, and, unless the brine is kept in a cool place, there 
is sometimes trouble from this source. The meat should be kept in the brine 
twenty-eight to forty days to secure thorough corning. 

Dried Beef. — The round is commonly used for dried beef, the inside of 
the thigh being considered the choicest piece, as it is slightly more tender than 
the outside of the round. The round should be cut lengthwise of the grain of the 
meat in preparing for dried beef, so that the muscle fibers may be cut cross wise 
when the dried beef is sliced for table use. A tight jar or cask is necessary for 
curing. The process is as follows : To each 100 pounds of meat weigh out 5 pounds 
of salt, 3 pounds of granulated sugar ; mix thoroughly together. Rub the meat on 
all surfaces with a third of the mixture and pack it in the jar as tightly as possible. 
Allow it to remain three days,, when it should be removed and rubbed again with 
another third of the mixture. In repacking put at the bottom the pieces that were 
on top the first time. Let stand for three days, when they should be removed 
and rubbed with the remaining third of the mixture and allowed to stand for 
three days more. The meat is then ready to be removed from the pickle. The 
liquid forming in the jars should not be removed, but the meat should be repacked 
in the liquid each time. After being removed from the pickle the meat should be 
smoked and hung in a dry attic or near the kitchen fire where the water will evapo- 
rate from it. It may be used at any time after smoking, although the longer it 
hangs in the dry atmosphere the drier it will get. The drier the climate, in general, 
the more easily meats can be dried. In arid regions good dried meat can be made 
by exposing it fresh to the air, with protection from flies. 

Plain Salt Pork. — Rub each piece of meat with fine common salt and pack 



282 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

closely in a barrel. Let stand over night. The next day weigh out 10 pounds of 
salt to each 100 pounds of meat and dissolve in 4 gallons of boiling water. Pour 
this brine over the meat when cold, cover and weight down to keep it under the 
brine. Meat will pack best if cut into pieces about 6 inches square. The pork 
should be kept in the brine till used. 

Sugar-Cured Hams and Bacon. — When the meat is cooled, rub each piece 
with salt and allow it to drain overnight. Then pack it in a barrel with the hams 
and shoulders in the bottom, using the strips of bacon to fill in between or to put on 
top. Weigh out for each 100 pounds of meat 8 pounds of salt and 2 pounds of 
brown sugar. Dissolve all in 4 gallons of water, and cover the meat with the 
brine. For summer use it will be safest to boil the brine before using. In that 
case it should be thoroughly cooled before it is used. For winter curing it is not 
necessary to boil the brine. Bacon strips should remain in this brine four to .six 
weeks ; hams six to eight weeks. This is a standard recipe and has given the best 
of satisfaction. Hams and bacon cured in the spring will keep right through the 
summer after they are smoked. The meat will be sweet and palatable if it is 
properly smoked, and the flavor will be good. 

Dry-Cured Pork. — For each 100 pounds of meat weigh out 5 pounds of 
salt, 2 pounds of granulated sugar, and mix them thoroughly. Rub the meat 
once every three days with a third of the mixture. While the meat is curing it is 
best to have it packed in a barrel or tight box. For the sake of convenience it is 
advisable to have two barrels, and to transfer the meat from one to the other 
each time it is rubbed. After the last rubbing the meat should lie in the barrel 
for a week or ten days, when it will be cured and ready to smoke. To cure nicely 
it is desirable to have a cool and rather moist place in which to keep it. 

This recipe should not be used where the meat must be kept in a warm and 
dry place, as the preservatives will not penetrate easily and uniformly. 

Head-Cheese. — Cut a hog's head into four pieces. Remove the brain, ears, 
skin, snout, and eyes. Cut off the fattest parts for lard. Put the lean and bony 
parts to soak overnight in cold water in order to extract the blood and dirt. When 
the head is cleaned put it over the fire to boil, using water enough to cover it. Boil 
until the meat separates readily from the bone. Then remove it from the fire and 
pick out all of the bones. Drain off the liquor, saving a part of it for future use. 
Chop the meat up finely with a chopping knife. Return it to the kettle and pour on 
enough of the liquor to cover the meat. Let it boil slowly for fifteen minutes to a 
half hour. Season to taste with salt and pepper just before removing it from the 
fire. Turn it into a shallow pan or dish. Cover with a piece of cheese cloth and 
put on a board with a weight to make it solid. When cold it should be sliced thinly 
and served without further cooking. 

Scrapple. — This article of food is made just as head-cheese is until the 
bones are removed and the meat chopped, when the liquor is added and the dish 
returned to the stove to boil. Corn meal is then stirred in until the contents are as 
thick as corn meal mush. Stir it constantly for the first fifteen minutes. Then set 
it back on the stove to boil slowly for an hour. When it is done pour it into a shal- 
low dish to mold. When cold it is sliced thin and fried. 

Pickled Pig's Feet. — Soak the pig's feet for twelve hours in cold water. 



HANDY HOME HELPS 283 

Scrape them clean and remove the toes. Boil until soft ; four to five hours will 
usually be required. Salt them when partially done. Pack them in a stone jar and 
cover them with hot, spiced vinegar. They are served cold, or split and fried in a 
batter made of eggs, flour, milk, and butter. 

Trying Out Lard. — Only the best of fat should be used for choice lard. 
Leaf fat is the best. The back strip of the side also makes nice lard, as do the ham, 
shoulder, and neck trimmings. Gut fat should never be mixed with the leaf and 
back fat. It makes a strong-smelling lard and should be kept separate. All scraps 
of lean meat should be cut out of the fat before trying out, as they are very likely 
to stick to the kettle and get scorched, giving an unpleasant flavor to the lard. 
When preparing the fat for trying cut it into pieces from 1 to 1 1 / 2 inches square. 
They should be nearly equal in size, so that they will try out in about the same 
time. Fill a clean kettle about three-fourths full and put in a quart of water, or, 
if convenient, a quart of hot lard. One or the other is necessary to pre- 
vent the fat from burning before the heat is sufficient to bring out the 
grease. Keep the kettle over a moderate fire until the cracklings are brown 
and light enough to float. Frequent stirring will be necessary to prevent burning. 
When done remove from the stove and allow to cool slightly, and then strain 
through a muslin cloth into a large jar. Stir it occasionally until it is cool enough 
to begin to solidify. If pails or smaller jars are to be filled the lard should be 
dipped out while just warm enough to be liquid. Stirring while the lard is cooling 
tends to whiten it and make it smoother. A quarter of a pound of saleratus added 
to each 100 pounds of fat has a like effect. 

Sausage. — Pork sausage should be made only from clean, fresh pork. To 
each 3 pounds of lean pork add 1 pound of fat. As the pork usually used for sau- 
sage is the shoulder, neck, and lean trimmings, the sausage is quite likely to be 
too fat unless part of the fat is removed and used for lard. Mix the fat and lean 
meat together in chopping. Where a rotary cutter is used it is best to cut the meat 
twice. After it is cut the first time spread it out thinly and season. One ounce 
of pure, fine salt, one-half ounce of ground black pepper, and one-half ounce of 
pure leaf sage, rubbed fine, to each 4 pounds of meat, will suit the taste of most 
persons. The seasoning should be sprinkled thinly over the cut meat and the meat 
again run through the cutter to mix the seasoning thoroughly. This method will 
give a more even mixing of the spices than can be obtained by working it with the 
hands. For immediate use the sausage may be packed away in stone jars or crocks 
to be sliced for frying. Many people stuff it into casings made from the small in- 
testines of the hog. When this is done the intestines must be turned inside out and 
carefully cleaned. 

Casings for sausage can be bought for about 3 cents a pound. At this price it 
will hardly pay to bother cleaning them for home use. The bought casings are more 
uniform in size and strength and will usually give better satisfaction. A good sub- 
stitute for casings may be had in narrow muslin bags. These, when filled, should be 
%y 2 or 3 inches in diameter and 18 to 24 inches long. Stuff the sausage in tightly 
by hand and hang in a cool place. If the sausage is to be kept for some time, 
melted lard should be rubbed over the outside of the bag. This excludes the 



284 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

air. Sausage may b'e kept for some time in a large jar if a thin coat of lard is put 
over the top. 

Mixed sausage may be made from a mixture of pork and beef in almost any 
proportion. It is the custom on many farms to kill three or four hogs and a beef 
during the winter for the year's supply of meat. When this plan is followed a 
nice supply of sausage can be made from the trimmings. Sausage should not con- 
tain too much fat. A good proportion is 2 pounds of lean pork, 1 pound of fat 
pork, and 1 pound of lean beef. Chop together fine and season the same as pork 
sausage. Pack in jars, muslin bags, or casings. Many people prefer this to clear 
pork sausage, as it. is not so fat. 

Hamburg Steak. — This is made from lean beef by running it through a 
sausage cutter. A very little fat should be added to the lean beef to make it juicy. 
It should be run through the cutter twice before using and salted slightly. A small 
amount of sugar-cured bacon is sometimes cut in with the beef to add flavor. 
Lean beef from the round makes the choicest Hamburg, but neck pieces, flanks, 
and trimmings are frequently used. Hamburg steak is not stuffed into casings, but 
left in bulk and made into patties for frying. 

Bologna Sausage. — To each 10 pounds of lean beef use 1 pound of fat 
pork, or bacon if preferred. Chop finely and season with 1 ounce of salt to each 
4 pounds of meat, 1 ounce of the best black pepper (ground, pure) to each 6 
pounds of meat, and a little ground coriander. Stuff into casing called beef 
"middles" or beef "rounds." If stuffed into middles, make the sausages 10 or 12 
inches long, and allow them to hang straight. If stuffed into rounds make them 
12 to 15 inches long, and tie the ends together so as to form rings. Smoke for ten 
or twelve hours. Cook in boiling water until the sausages float. Dry on clean hay 
or straw in the sun, and hang away in a cool place until wanted. 

Casings. — Sausage casings are the intestines of hogs, cattle, or sheep 
which have been emptied and cleaned. They are turned inside out and soaked 
in a solution of lye or limewater, thoroughly washed, and then salted down. 
When cleaned and put up by a reputable packer they are as good as when cleaned 
at home, and when they can be bought at a reasonable price it hardly pays to clean 
them for home use. The casings from different animals are used for the various 
kinds of sausages. Beef casings are of three kinds, "rounds," made from the 
small intestines ; "bungs," made from the large intestines ; and "middles," made 
from that part of the entrails leading from the bung to the rectum. The "rounds" 
are used for bologna, the "bungs" for bologna, ham, and blood sausage, and the 
"middles" for bologna and summer sausage. Hog casings are made from the 
small intestines of the hog, and are used mainly for pork link sausage. Sheep 
casings are from the small intestines of sheep, and are commonly used for wiener- 
wurst and other small sausages. 

Smoking of Meats. 

Pickled and cured meats are smoked to aid in their preservation and to give 
flavor and palatability. The creosote formed by the combustion of the wood 
closes the pores to some extent, excluding the air, and is objectionable to insects. 

House and Fuel. — -The smokehouse should be 8 or 10 feet high to give the 



HANDY HOME HELPS 285 

best results, and of a size suited to the amount of meat likely to be smoked. One 
6 by 8 feet will be large enough for ordinary farm use. Ample ventilation should 
be provided to carry off the warm air in order to prevent overheating the meat. 
Small openings under the eaves or a chimney in the roof will be sufficient if ar- 
ranged so as to be easily controlled. A fire pot outside of the house proper with 
a flue through which the smoke may be conducted to the meat chamber gives the 
best conditions for smoking. When this can not well be arranged a fire may be 
built on the floor of the house and the meat shielded by a sheet of metal. Where 
the meat can be hung 6 or 7 feet above the fire this precaution need not be taken. 
The construction should be such as to allow the smoke to pass up freely over the 
meat and out of the house, though rapid circulation is at the expense of fuel. 

Brick or stone houses are best, though the first cost is greater than if they 
are built of lumber. ^ Large dry-goods boxes and even barrels may be made to 
serve as smokehouses where only small amounts of meat are to be smoked. The 
care of meat in such substitutes is so much more difficult and the results so much 
less satisfactory that a permanent place should be provided if possible. 

The best fuel for smoking meats is green hickory or maple wood smothered 
with sawdust of the same material. Hard wood of any kind is preferable to soft 
wood. Resinous woods should never be used, as they are likely to impart bad 
flavors to the product. Corn cobs are the best substitute for hard wood and may 
be used if desired. Soft wood and corn cobs give off large amounts of carbon in 
burning, and this is deposited on the meat, making it dark in color and rank 
flavored. Juniper berries and fragrant woods are sometimes added to the fire 
to flavor the meat. 

Filling the House. — Meat that is to be smoked should be removed from 
the brine two or three days before being put in the smokehouse. If it has been 
cured in a strong brine, it will be best to soak the pieces in cold water overnight 
to prevent a crust of salt from forming on the outside when drained. Washing 
the meat in tepid water and scrubbing clean with a brush is a good practice. The 
pieces should then be hung up to drain for a day or two. When drained they 
may be hung in the house. All should be suspended below the ventilators and 
should hang so that no two pieces come in contact, as this would prevent uniform 
smoking. 

Keeping Up the Fire. — A slow fire may then be started, warming up the 
meat gradually. During the winter months in cold climates it is best to keep the 
fire going continually until the smoking is complete, holding the temperature at 
about the same point. If the fire is allowed to die down, the meat becomes cold 
and the smoke does not penetrate readily. This results in heavy smoke on the 
outside and very little on the inner portions of the meat. During the spring 
months and in the summer a light fire may be started every second or third day 
for two weeks, the meat being allowed to hang in the smokehouse until sufficiently 
colored. When the fire is kept going steadily and an even temperature is main- 
tained, twenty-four to thirty-six hours will be required to finish one lot of meat. 
Smoke will not penetrate frozen meat and it will be necessary to extract all frost 
from it before filling the house. The house should be kept dark at all times to 



286 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

prevent flies entering. As soon as smoked sufficiently the meat should be cooled 
by opening the ventilators or doors. When hard and firm it may be canvased or 
packed away for summer use. 

Keeping Smoked Meats. 

Smoked meat may be left in the smokehouse for some time during moderate 
weather. The house should be kept perfectly dark and well enough ventilated 
to prevent dampness. A dry, cool cellar or an attic with free circulation will be 
a satisfactory place for smoked meats at all seasons if it is kept dark and flies 
are excluded. 

If to be held only a short time, hams and bacon will need only to be hung out 
separately without covering. For longer keeping it will be necessary to wrap 
them first in paper and then in burlaps, canvas, or muslin and bury them in a grain 
bin or other suitable place, the object being to gain a uniform temperature and to 
keep away insects. A coat of ground pepper rubbed into the piece before wrap- 
ping will be distasteful to them. For absolute safe-keeping for an indefinite period 
of time, it is essential that the meat be thoroughly cured. After it is smoked and 
has become dry on the surface it should be wrapped in parchment paper; or old 
newspapers will do where parchment can not be had. Then inclose in heavy mus- 
lin or canvas, and cover with yellow wash or ordinary lime whitewash, glue being 
added. Hang each piece out so that it does not come in contact with other pieces. 
Do not stack in piles. 

Recipe for Yellow Wash. — For 100 pounds hams or bacon take— 

3 pounds barytes (barium sulphate). 

0.06 pound glue. 

0.08 pound chorme yellow (lead chromate). 

0.40 pound flour. 
Half fill a pail with water and mix in the flour, dissolving all lumps thor- 
oughly. Dissolve the chrome in a quart of water in a separate vessel and add 
the solution and the glue to the flour; bring the whole to a boil and add the 
barytes slowly, stirring constantly. Make the wash the day before it is required. 
Stir it frequently when using, and' apply with a brush. 

To Cook Poultry, rub inside with a piece of lemon. It whitens the flesh 
and makes it tender. 

To Make the Back Piece of the Chicken Appetizing. — This has been con- 
sidered the least desirable piece of the chicken because of the difficulty of separ- 
ating the meat from the bones when eating it. Break the ribs where they are 
attached to the backbone and peel them out when preparing the chicken for cook- 
ing. Then fold the two sides around the back-bone and fasten with a toothpick. 
You then have a piece that closely resembles a thigh. 

To Keep cheese Fresh. — Wrap in a cloth which has been dampened in 
vinegar and place the cheese and cloth in a covered vessel to shut out the air. 
Sausage. — Put the sausage in the oven to heat or cook. Then pack tightly 
in cans and cover with hot lard and seal. Sausage may also be packed in, earthen 
jars if covered with hot lard. Meat bought in cold weather and preserved cuts 
the meat bill in two and yet you have a nice supply the year around. 



HANDY HOME HELPS 287 

Ham. — Spread the cut surface thickly with lard. When ready to slice 
again scrape off the lard. After cutting, the lard which was removed may be 
placed on the surface cut last. In this way ham may be kept for any length 
of time in a cool place. Ham may also be kept from spoiling by rubbing the cut 
surface thoroughly with salt in the same way. 

Steak or Fresh Meat- — Wrap it in a cloth wrung out of vinegar. 'Then 
wrap in butcher's paper and put the parcel in the ice chest in the ice compart- 
ment. This method has proved very successful. 

Beefsteak. — Cut up steak. Season as for table use with salt and pepper. 
Then place in a crock or jar and cover with melted lard. It will keep until 
spring when preserved in this way. 

Frying Beef. — Buy a whole quarter. It will cost no more than half the 
quantity bought in small amounts. Slice all you can for frying. Then prepare 
a mixture as follows: one pint salt, two tablespoonfuls sugar, two tablespoonfuls 
pepper, and one teaspoonful saltpeter. Take a jar large enough to hold the meat 
and sprinkle the bottom lightly with the mixture. Then alternate layers of the meat 
and the mixture. Use just as much of the mixture as if salting the meat for 
present use. While packing the meat into the jars press each layer down firmly to 
exclude the air. When the meat is all packed into the jar cover with a plate 
and put a small weight upon it to hold it down rather tightly. Beef kept in this 
way will be in fine condition until used. The meat which could not be sliced 
off the bones may be canned as above described. Thus the entire quarter is pre- 
served and nothing is wasted. 

To keep beefsteak tender sprinkle a pinch of soda over the steak when frying. 

To Can Fresh Beef. — Cook the meat as for table use. Salt and pepper it. 
When very tender take out all the bone, cut the meat small enough to put in cans, 
return the meat to the liquid and when heated to the boiling point can and seal it. 
Meat preserved in this way will keep nicely. Corn beef may be kept in the same 
way. 

To Get All Possible Lard. — First cut the fat in small chunks and run 
through a food grinder. Add a little cold water and render thoroughly. Very 
little material is left. Burned fat is of no use. To remove any burned taste, put 
several slices of raw potatoes into melted fat and heat until the potatoes are brown. 

Milk. 

To Keep Sweet. — Keep it in shallow pans rather than in deep pans or 
jugs. It has more air surface for radiation. 

Put a spoonful of scraped horseradish into the bottom of each milk pan. It 
will keep several days.. 

To Sweeten Sour Milk. — Add carbonate of magnesia or baking soda to 
slightly sour milk or cream and it will sweeten. The magnesia is preferable. 
Soda spoils the taste slightly. 

Removing Taste from Burned Milk. — Pour into clean vessel and let it 
cool. After cooling the taste will be removed. 

To Prevent Burning of Milk. — Before putting in the milk, rinse the pan 



288 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



in boiling water. To be doubly sure put water in the pan and let it boil; then 
pour out the water and pour in the milk immediately. 

Substitute for Milk. — When fresh milk or condensed milk are not available 
this may be used — beat one or two fresh eggs and add about twice as much cold 
water. Mix well together. Baby will like this in the morning cereal, especially. 

Milk and Acid Fruits Will Curdle. — Cream and fruits like strawberries, 
peaches, etc. will not curdle. 

A very little baking soda added to whipping cream will make it whip quicker. 

Pastries. 

Biscuits. — To make biscuits crisp, use water instead of milk for mixing, 
and use twice as much shortening. 

To warm cold biscuits, sprinkle several drops of water on top of each biscuit, 
stand on edge in a pan and set in a hot oven for several minutes. The steam will 
make them fluffy and fresh. 

Birthday Cakes. — For lettering, select letters of children's names, dates, 
etc., from alphabet noodles. Put them in a dish which contains a teaspoonful of 
gelatin dissolved in hot water. When the letters are colored remove them to a 
cloth to absorb moisture. After this they may be arranged on the top of the cake. 
If the letters are arranged on patty cakes unique place cards can be made. 

Bread. — To cut hot bread, hold 
steel bread knife over the flame until 
it is hot and it will cut warm bread 
easily. 

Brown Bread. — Save all tin cof- 
fee cans. They make fine cans for 
baking Boston Brown Bread. 

To Cool Bread. — Take out of tin 
and rub the top with butter. Leave 
uncovered and it will cool better and 
also remove the chance for it to be- 
come heavy. 

Milk Bread.— Milk added to the 
flour in bread making will keep the baked bread moist longer. It also has 
more food value. 

Good Bread. — Knead the dough until perfectly smooth and elastic. It may 
then be indented and will immediately fill up again. Bread should be double 
the bulk at the first rising. After it is baked, it should be kept in earthen jars or tin 
boxes which should be scalded once a week and dried in the sun. 




Board for Cutting Bread. 



Cake. 

To Flavor Cake. — Put leaves from a walnut geranium in the bottom of 
the pan before putting in the dough. Of course the leaves are to be washed 
carefully before placing in the pan. The leaves can be pulled off the cake easily 
after it is baked. The cake will be found to have a most delicious flavor. 



HANDY HOME HELPS 289 

Cakes and Pies. — To remove from pans, set hot cakes and pies on a wire 
netting so the air can circulate underneath. They can then be easily removed 
without sticking. 

Fried Cakes and Doughnuts. — Use curved wooden stick in turning cakes 
in the boiling grease. The fried cakes will be light and white if not pricked with 
a fork. 

Icing. — If it sugars add a teaspoonful of melted butter and whip. 

To Prevent Pie Boiling Out. — Moisten the edge of the lower crust all 
around (be sure you touch every part) with the white of an egg, then press the 
upper crust on firmly. One lady writes, "I have tried this method for three years 
and have not once had the juice run out." 

Add a little common baking powder to the flour, then mix well and pie crust 
will bake light. 

Always put one good tablespoonful of cornstarch in the dough for each 
eight teaspoonfuls, or half cup of common white flour you use. This makes 
nice light pie crusts and cakes. 

Toasts. — Bread should be cut in slices the night before and let stand in 
the air if they are to be used for toast in the morning. It browns better and is 
more crisp. 

Hard, crisp toast is more digestible than that which is merely scorched on 
the outer surfaces. 

Vegetables. 

Eating Raw Vegetables. — Apples and fruits bought from stores are always 
handled more or less. Before being eaten raw they can be thoroughly cleaned 
by washing in water to which has been added some peroxide of hydrogen. As 
prevention is better than a cure this will surely keep many children from getting 
sore mouths and infections. 

Beans. — Gather string beans and cut in lengths. Dry and hang in bag. 
When used soak them before cooking. 

Dry King Beans. — Pick while tender and spread in hot sun. 

Cabbage. — Cut cabbage close to the ground and suspend to rafters, head 
down, by a string in a cool cellar. 

Carrots a Substitute for Pumpkin. — If you have no pumpkins, cook and 
prepare carrots for pies the same as you would pumpkins. They make an ex- 
cellent substitute. 

Cauliflower. — Almost cover them in trenches, then place a layer of straw 
over the heads and cover with enough dirt to hold the straw down. 

Celery Blight. — Spray celery with Bordeaux mixture. Also pull up and 
cut out the diseased plants and parts. Burn them. Clean up the celery patch 
in the fall. 

Celery Flavoring. — Cut tops from plants, run through chopper and dry. 
This makes a fine flavoring for soups. 



290 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Corn. — Clean well then steam ten minutes. To dry on the cob clean out 
the pulp between rows and place in oven. 

Clean the corn well, then cut from the cob with a sharp knife. Mix one 
cup sugar with six quarts of cut corn. Dry either in oven for a few minutes 
or place in hot sun. 

Cucumbers. — Planting a few radish seeds in a hill of cucumbers tends to 
keep worms and bugs from eating the young plants. 

Lettuce. — To keep lettuce fresh wet a clean white cloth with cold water 
and wrap it about the lettuce. Turn the ends in all around and keep wet. Don't 
put it on the ice or outdoors. 

To Dry. — An effective way of drying lettuce for salad is to place it in a 
clean dish-towel after washing, gather the sides and corners in the hand so as to 
form a bag. Step to the kitchen door and whirl the bag at arm's length three or 
four times. This drives out the water and leaves the lettuce practically dry. 

Onions. — To keep onions, cut off tops after gathering and place in lofts 
or on floors to thoroughly dry. Pack in bags or barrels and cover under hay 
to keep from freezing. 

Parsley. — Pick and place on paper in oven. When dried, rub it into pow- 
der and pack in sealed cans. 

Parsnips. — Dig late in fall. Heel them in close together and cover with 
straw and sand. 

Peas. — Pick and hull, drying hard over open fire or in open oven. Then 
put in cans or jars and cover tightly. Soak before cooking. They will taste like 
fresh. 

Pick tender and place on papers in sun. 

Potatoes. — Dark cellar is preferable. Place in sand pit deep in the ground 
or dig well trenched surface pit and line with straw. Cover with layer of straw and 
thin earth, then more straw and plenty of earth. Leave small air hole in top 
with no covering but thick straw. 

To bake potatoes, let stand in hot water ten or fifteen minutes. Rub with 
a little grease and bake in hot oven. They will cook quicker and be more mealy. 

Let potatoes stand in hot water for fifteen minutes before baking them. 
They will then bake in half the time and will be more mealy and palatable. 

Rub a little lard, butter, or olive oil over the potato before baking. The skin 
will then be as, thin as paper and easily removed. Treat sweet potatoes the same 
way. 

To make mashed potatoes light and fluffy — after the milk has been added to 
the potatoes, put in a pinch of baking powder. 

Sunburned potatoes have green spots. These spots should be cut out as they 
give a bitter taste to the vegetable. 

To whiten potatoes, put a teaspoonful of vinegar in a saucepan when they 
are frosted or when they turn black while cooking. 

Sweet Potatoes. — Pack in sand or bran without bruising. Keep in cool 
temperature about twenty degrees above freezing. 



HANDY HOME HELPS 291 

Pumpkins. — When cooking pumpkin it nearly always boils dry and must 
have careful attention. Wash the pumpkin split in halves, clean out the seeds, 
then place in oven and cook as you would a squash. Clean out of shell and it is 
immediately ready for pie and is very dry and nice. Very little work is necessary, 
and it does away with the sieve. 

Pare ripe pumpkins, cut up and cook to soft mash. Then spread pulp on 
plates about half an inch thick. Dry slightly without scorching and let stand 
for a day. They will be dry and crisp and can be packed well in boxes, thus 
being always ready for use. 

Radishes.— Salt placed in the furrow is said to keep worms from eating 
radishes. It should be sifted in while planting. 

Rhubarb. — When rhubarb is peeled it drys quickly. However, it will be 
as easy to can. 

Squash. — Pile in warm dry room. An attic is good. Hanging up by 
strings keeps it in good condition. 

Tomatoes. — Run fork through stem end, and light a small flame in a 
stove; hold tomato over blaze and turn slowly. The skin will soon burst open 
and it may be easily peeled. This is much better than dipping in boiling water 
as the tomato does not heat and become soft. Also the work is much more 
rapidly done. 

Pick the tomatoes while green and place on strips or screens hung in cool, 
dry places where they wont freeze. 

Turnips. — Keep in barns where temperature is not high during winter. 
Keep sprouted and covered with straw. 

Vinegar. — Add an equal amount of sweet water to the quantity of vinegar 
you use. It makes the vinegar stronger and saves the cost of new vinegar. 

Wash your hands in diluted vinegar after washing dishes and the strong 
soapy water will not chap them. 

If diluted it will keep meat fresh in hot weather. 

Will polish steel work quickly. 

Vinegar and bran makes a fine poultice for all bruises, pains and aches. 

Added to rinse water vinegar will help revive red and pink colored goods. 

Diluted and rubbed on furniture before polishing makes a brilliant surface. 
Vinegar is often used for this purpose. 

Miscellaneous. 

All loose bread crumbs should be saved dried and rolled for scalloped dishes 
and frying. 

There is a saving of fifty percent in buying broken, instead of whole rice. 
Try it. 

Gelatin. — This is nothing but clean glue. Glue is nothing but dirty gelatin. 
A good test is to soak gelatin for four hours in cold water and then heat. If 
good it will not give off any offensive odor. 

Mushrooms, to Test. — While cooking stir with an old silver spoon. If 
there is any foreign substance in them, the spoon will turn color. 



292 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 



w 



Foods, If Too Salty. — Add a couple slices of potato and cook a little 
longer. Potatoes absorb the salt. 

Pecans, to Crack. — Soak in boiling water for four hours. Then crack 
evenly and the meats come out without the bitter lining being attached. 

Iron Pots. — Always boil new iron pots containing wood ashes and water. 
This keeps them from burning. 

Wood Ashes. — Sift and put up a canful for use in scouring dishes and 
pans. 

For appetite lost while cooking beat a raw egg then add a little sugar, put 
in a glass and fill with milk. Add a few drops of the flavoring you like best and 

drink it. This will remove the faint 
nauseated feeling you have after 
working in a hot kitchen. 

To Cool Food. — Add bluing to 
can of cold water until it is a dark 
blue, then put in a handful of salt. 
Place article to be cooled in this 
water. It acts quickly. 

Uses of Sugar Sacks. — Save 
them and boil in weak lye water. 
This will make them clean and 
white. They make good table cov- 
ers to keep flies away; good linings 
for quilts; fine dust or polishing 
cloths ; can be used to hold dried 
fruits and children can use them for 
handkerchiefs especially when hav- 
ing colds. 

To Use Marbles in Cooking. — 
Most people know that placing a 
marble in a teakettle prevents "fur- 
ring," or collecting of lime in the 
kettle. A large clean marble boiled 
in milk, porridge sauces or stews will 
do the stirring automatically, and 
prevent burning. 

Chilling Fudge. — This is much better than the old way — beating fudges 
or candies till cold after removing them from the fire. Take the candy from the 
fire when the soft ball stage is reached. Then place the pot in a larger one con- 
taining cold water. Stir until firm. It will be more creamy and less granular 
than it could be by the old method. A chemist tells us this is because the con- 
tact of the pot with the cold water underneath immediately arrests crystallization. 
It may be that the motion of stirring, rather than beating, tends to prevent granu- 
lating. At all events, chill your candy in the water. 

To Freshen Cocoanut. — Pouring a cup of sweet milk over shredded 
cocoanut will freshen it. You will find this almost as good as freshly grated 




Ideal Cooler for Food. 

Sink a large barrel in the ground. Choose 
a shady place and fill around the barrel with 
moistened gravel and sand, or small stones 
may be used. Build a box over the top of 
the barrel, and bank with clay if possible 
to drain off water. Put a hinged lid on the 
box as shown above, also an inner top on 
the barrel. You can also keep fruit fresh 
this way. 



HANDY HOME HELPS 293 

cocoanut. It makes cake or candy much more delicious than when dry cocoanut 
is used. The milk should be pressed out by using a wire sieve so that it will not 
affect the icing or candy. 

Olive Oil. — This is fine for flesh building and can be used on foods as 
dressings for fruits or vegetables. 

To Improve Cocoa or Chocolate. — When making a large quantity add a 
pinch of salt. This lends piquancy to the flavor. 

Left-over Mush and Oatmeal. — Corn meal mush and oatmeal can be fried 
into cakes' that will be relished in the morning. Syrup can be used as a covering. 

Shortenings. — Butter is usually too expensive to use in cooking so use 
lard, vegetole, or cotton seed oil. The latter is used by many women and is a 
good flesh builder as well as cheap. 

Baking soda, a little on the tip of the spoon, when added to chocolate 
fudge and beaten, makes it light and creamy. 

A little baking soda added to all cooking water will help to quicken the 
cooking. 

To Save Steps. — Buy some cheap tin spoons and keep them in the boxes 
that hold things like spices, salt, lard, etc. 

To Save Matches. — Cut old postal cards in thin strips. Light in fire and 
use for lamps, lanterns, etc. The strips will carry fire well. 

To Rid of Tin Cans. — Burn in coal fire. They are consumed and help 
clean the chimney. 

Use of Baking Powder Cans. — Label them and fill with spices, etc. 

Keep Corset Stay Handy for Scraping Pans. — It will bend and fit into 
any utensil. 

To Soften Blacking. — Add few drops of turpentine to shoe or stove black- 
ing. This softens and makes better. 

To Blacken Stoves. — Use brush and put hand in paper bag when holding 
polishing rag. 

Brooms. — For use in scrubbing it is well to cut the top from a sock or 
stocking large enough and slip down over the broom. A good stout cord tied 
about the middle will hold it in place and make the broom stiffer for scrubbing. 

Broom Covers. — For spring work put a couple of ruffles on the broom 
cover. This aids in cleaning out cracks and corners by catching the dirt. 

To Hold Twine. — Hang a funnel to ceiling by strings and run end of 
twine through the spout. Tie and add all new string and you will find it counts 
up fast. 

To Pack China. — Lay paper or blotters between each plate, etc., that can 
be laid together and tie tightly with heavy twine. Put in barrel or box lined with 
straw. Do not leave loose dishes or open spaces. 

A Fine Fuel Saver. — Place an inverted skillet or pan over the flat-irons on 
the burner. By holding the heat this shortens the time necessary for heating 
the irons. 

To Renew Mason Jar-lids. — When your Mason jar-lids appear dull and 
dingy-looking boil them in a solution consisting of three tablespoon fuls of borax, 
one-third of a cake of Ivory soap, and about two gallons of water. Have the 



294 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

lids completely covered by the water and boil for 30 minutes, then rinse thor- 
oughly with hot water. 

Fuel Saver. — Soak your old newspapers in water, tear and make into balls 
and thoroughly dry. Equally good in stove or furnace. Throws fine heat. 

To Make Brooms Last Longer. — You will make brooms last much longer 
by placing a loose cover over their heads. After using the broom remove the 
dust from the bristles, button on the cover, and hang the broom in the cupboard 
head upward. 

Can Rubbers. — Add one teaspoonful of ammonia to a quart of hot water. 
Bring to a boil and drop in any old can rubbers you may have. They will be- 
come soft and just as good as new. 

How to Cover Old Floor and Save Money. — If you have a rough or worn 
floor in your house obtain a roll of rubberized roofing paper and fit the floor, 
next get a can of floor paint and a pint of varnish. The price of these materials 
is very reasonable and they will last several years. The lady who wrote this to us 
says the total cost for a large room was but two dollars. 

Lamp Wicks. — Wool strips or wicks made from old felt hats are fine. 

Old Felt. — For cracks about doors and windows take old hats and cut into 
strips. Nail these to the crevices in the door or window and the wind and cold 
will be kept out. 

Make a pad the size of the shoe and place it next to the sole. This will 
keep the feet warm and also absorb the moisture that may come in. 

Fertilizer. — Put soapy water on plants and they will grow well. 

To Make Lamp Chimneys Tough. — Always put new chimneys in cold 
water and heat to boiling point. Let them cool in the same water and they will 
wear very good. 

To Keep Cut Flowers. — Add a little charcoal or piece of camphor gum. 
Another good suggestion is to add a little bluing to water. Cut the stems a 
quarter of an inch each day. 

To Keep Garbage Can from Tipping Over. — Drive several stakes into 
ground around can letting them come slightly above can cover. 

To keep garbage from freezing sprinkle a handful of salt in bottom of can 
before throwing in garbage. 

To Keep Icing from Cracking. — Add one tablespoonful of cream to the 
white of each unbeaten egg. Stir together and add powdered sugar. When 
being cut the frosting will not crack. 

To Keep Kettles from Becoming Black. — To do this when set on the 
stove, rub the bottom with soap (soft soap is best). The black very easily 
washes off. 

To Keep Kettle from Burning. — While pouring in material for cooking 
shake the kettle several times 

Oil-Stove Oven. — To keep from burning, place asbestos bottom in your 
oil-stove oven. 

To Keep Pans from Sticking. — Put oiled paper in bottom of pan and the 
cake will not burn or stick. Fresh pork and flour is also good to rub on bottom 
of the pan. 



HANDY HOME HELPS 295 

To Keep Paraffin for Continuous Use. — Buy a cheap teapot and as you 
open a can of preserves or anything with paraffin top wash it well and drop wax 
into teapot. When you wish more paraffin heat it in pot and pour on as needed. 

To Keep Salt Dry. — Place in fruit jars and mix rice with it. Keep covered 
when not using. 

To Keep Silver and Glasses. — Washing in a small wooden or fiber tub will 
be found excellent. 

TO MAKE. 

Green Plant for Table Centerpiece. — Take a two or three-inch deep glass 
dish. Put good soil in it and plant a number of grapefruit seeds in this. Keep 
it damp and warm. Soon there will be a very pretty looking centerpiece. 

Baking Powder. — Mix together and stir thoroughly, sifting through a 
flour sieve the following: y 2 pound cream tartar, 3 ounces of tartaric acid and one 
cup of flour. This makes a fine baking powder. 

Dustless Mop. — Take a strip of cheese-cloth, rope, or an old mop and soak 
in cedar oil, linseed oil, or kerosene. Dry and use. They are handy and easily 
made. An old broom handle may be used. 

Food Covers. — Take a small wire and loop into a complete circle. Cover 
with cotton or cheese cloth. This will be found handy for covering warm dishes 
and keeping out insects. These covers can be kept nice and clean. 

Handy Drier. — Instead of a dripping pan fold a bath towel and lay on the 
table. As dishes are washed place them on the towel. They will practically dry 
themselves. If rinsed before placing on the towel they can be put away without 
wiping. 

Handy Hooks. — Tie small hooks or wire loops on shelves in warming 
oven and you can hang pans and dishes in it to dry, as well as to keep them out 
of the way. 

Hot Pan Holders. — Make holders of heavy material and leave one side 
open. The hand can be inserted into the holder while using and it will be pro- 
tected from heat or steam. 

Iceless Ice Box. — For people who cannot get ice. Place layer of sawdust 
in bottom of larger box into which a smaller box has been placed. Fill up the 
spaces between with sawdust and bore hole in bottom of box. Set up from 
floor and keep cover on tightly. 

To Make Molasses Run. — Molasses will run out of a measuring cup 
quickly if first dipped in corn starch. 

Mush, to Keep from Lumping. — Add hot water and stir. It is best to 
pour the meal in gradually stirring all the time. 

To Make Odorless Kerosene. — Add ten or twelve drops of oil of lavender 
and two tablespoonfuls of vinegar to a pint of kerosene. For washing or clean- 
ing purposes as well as lamps this makes an odorless oil. 

Labels, to Remove. — Wet the labels and hold near heat. They will then 
come off. 

Woody Taste, to Remove. — First scald vessel with boiling water, leaving 



296 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

it in pot until cooled. Then pour out the water washing a second time with 
water containing common soda and a little lime. Scald again and rinse w*ith 
cold water. 

Brooms, to Keep. — Hang up with straw down to keep soft and pliable. 

Boil brooms in hot water before using the first time. This makes them 
tough and elastic. 

Table Mats, to Make. — Rubber matting is good for tables and is the best 
to protect table from hot dishes. It can be covered with cloth if desired. 

Pads for Table and Ironing Board, to Make. — Papers spread out over the 
surface make a fine substitute for cloth and are not expensive. They can be 
smoothed and are soft for working on them. 

Take an old piece of Brussels carpet and nail to the ironing board, nap 
side up. Cover this with an old blanket and then a sheet. This will last for 
years- and not get hard. Do not leave hot flat-iron on sheet. 

A Good Water Filter, to Make. — Take a large flower pot with a hole in 
the bottom. Stop hole with sponge and place few inches of charcoal in bottom. 
Put pot over a pail by setting on slats laid across the top and pour water in the 
pot. It will filter through the sponge and run into the pail absolutely pure. 
Change charcoal and sponge several times a year. 

Setting Table. — Knives, place sharp edge toward the plate on the right 
side ; forks at the left ; spoons are laid at the right of the knife according to their 
use ; cocktail fork comes at right of spoons. This is the order for placing silver 
on the table. The customary use of the knives and forks and spoons according 
to the courses is to begin the use of the outer one first. The guests are usually 
arranged, man and woman alternately. 

Fat from Soup, to Remove. — Pour the hot soup into a lard pail having a 
hole in the side near the bottom into which a plug or cork has been fitted. Let 
the soup stand until the fat rises to the surface, then remove the plug allowing 
the soup to run into another receptacle and stopping its flow when the fat nears 
the bottom. This method is especially convenient in hot weather. 

Eggs, to Test. — Place the egg in a pan of water. If fresh the egg will 
lie on its side at the bottom of the pan. If stale it will stand on end. If very 
old it rises to the surface. When just a few days old it will begin to tilt a little 
and as it ages the angle at which it tilts will increase. Thus the relative freshness 
of the egg can be told by noting just how it lies in the water. 

Meat. — Always unwrap meat before putting it into the ice box or the 
paper will absorb the juices. 

Fish. — To keep fish in the refrigerator without spoiling the flavor of other 
things, put the fish in glass jars with the tops screwed on tightly. 

Bread Box. — An apple put in the cake or bread box will keep the contents 
fresh and moist. 

Vegetables. — The most valuable parts of carrots, peas, spinach and 
other vegetables are contained in the mineral salts and vitamies. Do not pour 
the water from these vegetables into the sink but use it for soups, etc. 

Wash and boil potatoes with jackets on. The flavor is better when they are 
not nared and there is no water. 



HANDY HOME HELPS 



297 



To give green vegetables a bright color, pu> a pinch of borax in the water 
in which the vegetables are boiling. 

To Keep. — Lay them on the dry ground and cover them with a heavy 
carpet. The carpet can then be covered with leaves, etc. The vegetables will be 
found free from wilt at any time, and are always fresh. Carrots, winter 
radishes, turnips and even pears have been kept in fine condition in this way. 
Celery and endive may be covered in the same way. They bleach to the tips. 
If more are on hand than needed, vegetables may be kept in this way for a 
few weeks or for all winter. 



Handy Articles for the Newly Wedded Girl. 



Grinding Mill. 

Bread Slicer. 

Knife Sharpener. 

Dipper. 

Nut Cracker. 

Peach and Cherry Pitter. 

Hot Pan Lifter. 

Dish Washer. 

Dish Drier. 

Washing Machine. 

Can Cutter. 

Kitchen Knife Set. 

Grapefruit and Orange Set. 

Spatula. 

Carving Knife. 

Bread Knife. 

Fireless Cooker. 

Bread Mixer. 

Double Egg Beater. 

Meat and Food Chopper. 



Ice Pick. 

Cookie Cutter. 

Wooden Spoon. 

Measuring Spoon. 

Frying Pan. 

Dish Towel Rack. 

Spice Set. 

Bread and Cake Box. 

Flour Canister. 

Sugar Can. 

Electric Kitchen Utensils. 

Small Hammer. 

Rolling Pin. 

Double Boiler. 

Butter Crock. 

Vegetable Slicer. 

Measuring Cup. 

Coffee Percolator. 

Tea Kettle. 

Lemon Squeezer. 



TO CLEAN AND REMOVE. 



To Clean. 

Aluminum. — Oxalic acid will clean aluminum well. A soft brush and 
soapsuds will keep it clean, but non-gritty polishes are best for shining. 

Bathtubs, Enamel, etc. — First rub with kerosene. Then wash regularly. 

Baby's Nails. — To clean, simply fold sheet of writing paper and use the 
double edges. This is neat and efficient. 

Bed Springs. — To clean, use a small dish-mop well soaked in kerosene. 

Beadsteads. — For brass ones, cloth moistened with sweet oil, followed by 
rubbing with a chamois is good. Wooden bedsteads should be wiped with a 
cloth dampened in turpentine. 

Black Lace. — Rinse in black coffee with a teaspoonful of ammonia added 
to each cup. 

Blackened Cooking Dishes. — Add half can of lye and a teaspoonful of coal 
oil to a dishpan of water. Place utensils in dishpan and boil for over an hour. 
Then wash with clean hot water. 

Burners, Lamp. — Wash them in a mixture of wood ashes and water. 

Burners, Gas. — To brighten up the tops of gas burners on a range, wipe 
with an oiled cloth while warm. 

Carpets. — Soak paper in water, wring out, then tear in small pieces and 
throw on carpets before sweeping. 

You can clean a carpet by rubbing it with grated raw potatoes. A new 
broom should be used. Let the carpet dry before using. 

Use 1 quart of bullock's gall mixed with 3 quarts of cold soft water. Wet 
a clean flannel cloth with solution and rub carpet. Then rub off with another 
cloth. Dirty spots should be rubbed with pure gall. 

Make a solution of 1 ounce each of ether and chloroform, add a cup of 
salt, a ten-cent bottle of household ammonia; put in a wide-mouthed bottle 
and cork. Put two tablespoonfuls of solution in 2 gallons of hot water into 
which has been shaved a bar of white naphtha soap. Scrub carpet with stiff 
brush using only foam of water. 

Sprinkled with salt and swept, they will keep their color fine. 

Always place papers on floors before laying carpets or rugs. 

Make solution first of — four parts of liquid ammonia and three parts 
of alcohol diluted with water ; second — dissolve ten parts of soap in twenty 
parts of warm water, add 3}i parts of soda and J / 2 each of liquid ammonia and 
alcohol. After the first solution has been used and the dirt loosened by it 
removed, the soap solution is applied. Carpets thus treated regain their 

298 



TO CLEAN CLOTHING 299 

original colors and freshness. Time required for a large carpet is about 2 
hours, and carpet need not be taken up. 

To brighten rugs, first sweep well and then rub with a cloth soaked in 
ammonia water. 

Mix y 2 pound borax, two quarts of water, two cakes white soap and boil 
until well dissolved. Let cool, then, after sweeping, rub paste into rug with 
brush. Hang on line and rinse with water. Let it drip until dry. 

Coat Collars. — Dip tooth brush into naphtha or gasoline and rub collars 
to clean them. 

Combs. — Put ammonia in pan and lay the comb in it. The dirt will all 
come off. 

Curtains. — New curtains are always dressed in lime. Soak them in salt 
water before washing and they will clean much easier. 

Dust Mop. — Put soft cloths in old mop handle and you will be able to 
reach many places and corners. 

To clean dust mops, brush with wire hair brush. Also good for brushes 
in vacuum cleaners and carpet sweepers. 

Eiderdown Bed Covers. — Hang in the wind and sun. This sweetens and 
fluffs them up. 

Feather Pillows. — Pour hot water into pillow case, without removing 
feathers. Wash thoroughly with soap and water. Rinse several times then 
put in clean case and hang where wind and sun can dry them. They will be 
clean and fluffy. 

Flat Irons, Sticky. — Rub on sandpaper. This keeps them clean and 
smooth. Never heat an iron red hot. It will never afterward retain heat. 

Fluid for Cleaning. — For paints, grease and stains. One pint benzine, y> 
teaspoonful of chloroform, 1 teaspoonful each of alcohol and oil of wintergreen. 

Floors. — Spread thinly a coating of the following mixture over the floor 
and leave on about 24 hours before washing off: y 2 pound of pearlash, y 2 
pound of Fuller's earth. Make into paste with 2 quarts of boiling water. 
Wash boards lengthwise. 

Furniture. — Mix vinegar and sweet oil. Rub lightly with flannel and 
polish with clean cloth. 

Furs. — The furs should be well shaken then rubbed with fresh bran. White 
furs may be rubbed with moist bran. 

Garbage Can. — Put paper in bottom and just before emptying pour boiling 
water around edges. 

Glass. — For store windows a paste of calcined magnesia and purified 
benzine rubbed on well, gives a brilliant polish. 

A soft paper is fine for polishing mirrors. 

Burnt magnesia and benzine are good for cleaning milk glass and lamp 
globes. The following is good for lamp globes : a warmed solution of potash 
put into the globe and then rubbed with a linen rag. It should be rinsed and 
dried. 



300 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Several drops of muriatic acid applied and rubbed with a soft cloth will 
remove any substance on glassware. 

Plate glass and mirrors can be wiped with alcohol and a soft cloth. This 
prevents frost too. 

First washing with soapy water and rubbing with a Turkish towel de- 
velops a highly polished appearance on glass. 

Piano keys and mirrors can be cleaned well by pouring a little peroxide 
of hydrogen on the cloth with which you clean them. 

For bottles or decanters, mix pearlash and soap shavings. Pour into 
bottles and shake well. Rinse well several times and turn end-up to drain. 

Put a teaspoonful of baking soda into two cups of warm water. Let 
stand in bottles for some time then shake well and rinse. 

A tablespoonful of kerosene oil to a pail of water will cleanse and give 
a fine polish to windows. 

A cloth wet with alcohol or or ammonia and dipped in finely sifted wood 
ashes is good to clean mirrors. 

For Eye Glasses. — Glycerine soap rubbed on the lenses which are then 
polished with soft tissue-paper will keep them from becoming steamed or 
frosted. 

For Bottles. — Boil equal quantities of soda and quicklime. When cold 
pour this lye into bottles with some pebbles and shake well. Let drain and 
dry thoroughly. 

Incrustations on water bottles may be removed instantaneously by using 
a few drops of diluted hydrochloric or muriatic acid. 

Put a little pearlash or soda and cinders with water in bottle and shake 
well. Rinse and dry. This cleans the bottle effectively. 

Also coarse rock salt or carpet tacks are good. Then fill bottle half full 
of soapy water. Shake well. 

Hands Soiled. — Pumice stone will take off paint and dirt. Soda or potash 
in water makes a good cleanser. Kerosene will take off paint. 

Hats, Panama. — Dissolve one tablespoonful of oxalic acid in a cup of cold 
water. Brush hat with stiff brush and hang or lay it in sun to dry. 

Kid Gloves. — Fresh milk is fine for washing kid gloves. They can be 
washed on the hands or sponged with a soft cloth. Drying on the hands 
prevents shrinking. 

Knives. — Mix baking soda and pumice stone. Steel knives respond well 
to this. 

Lamp Burners. — Make a solution of one teaspoonful of sodium bicar- 
bonate to six spoonfuls of water. Boil the burner in this water. This is fine for 
renewing. 

Lacquered Goods. — Make paste of wheat flour and olive oil. Apply with 
flannel rag. Wipe and polish with silk cloth. 

Rub thoroughly with a paste made of wheat flour and olive oil which 
should be applied with a bit of soft flannel or old linen, rubbing hard. Wipe 
off and polish with an old silk handkerchief. 



TO CLEAN CLOTHING 301 

Marble. 

Soap and warm water cleans marble well. 
White wax in turpentine is a good marble polish. 
Don't wash with soap as it destroys the polish. 
Don't rub with oil as it makes marble yellow. 

First dust marble, then rub spots with soft damp cloth and dry thoroughly. 
Mattress. — Place mattress in sun. Make paste of starch and water. Rub 
this in and let stand a couple hours. Brush off with a broom. 
Matting. — Wash it frequently with salt and water. 

Painted Doors, Walls, Etc. 

Mix together one tablespoonful of pulverized borax and one cake of 
brown soap of good quality, cut in small pieces in two gallons of water. Let 
simmer gently over fire, stirring constantly. The mixture is applied by means 
of flannel and rinsed off at once with pure water. 

Put four tablespoonfuls of ammonia in six quarts of clean water and wash 
the walls. Rinse and rub dry. 

Gold frames should be rubbed with a slice of onion then wiped with 
gauze dipped in soft water. Dry with clean cloth. The painting should be 
dampened, dried gently and then pure linseed oil applied with powder puff or 
soft ball. 

In cleaning an oil painting take it out from its frame. Lay on it a piece 
of cloth moistened in rain water to take up dirt from the picture. Several 
applications may be required to secure perfect results. Wipe very gently 
with a tuft of cotton wool dampened with pure linseed oil. A freshly cut 
onion will clean gold frames. A few hours after the onion has been applied 
the frame should be wiped with a cloth wet with rain water, then finally wiped 
with a soft dry cloth. 

Onion rubbed over picture frames will protect them from fly specks and 
remove old ones. 

For gilt picture frames rub surface with raw potato. Then wash with 
soapy water and dry well. 

Woodwork. — Wash first with water then rub with oiled cloth. Make oil 
by mixing half cup of turpentine and one cup linseed oil. 

Rugs. — Wet tea leaves and coffee grounds are fine to freshen rugs and 
prevent dust while sweeping. 

Silver. 

Make a solution of % ounce fine salt, *4 ounce powdered alum, *4 ounce 
cream of tartar, and one quart of water, stir well until thoroughly dissolved. 
Put mixture in clean bottle and cork. Shake well each time before using. 
Wash the silver with some of the liquid and a soft linen cloth. Let stand a 
few minutes and then rub dry with a piece of buckskin. Very effective. 



302 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Dip a soft cloth in a weak preparation of ammonia water and rub the 
silver. 

Wash in a rather strong solution of concentrated lye and hot water. If 
silver is very black boil in soft water and washing soda. 

To each quart of water add one teaspoonful or baking soda, and one tea- 
spoonful of table salt. When water is boiling drop into it a piece of aluminum 
(aluminum discs can be bought) or zinc. Place each piece of silver in vessel 
so it will touch aluminum. Let stand a few seconds. Rinse with clear water 
and dry well with a soft cloth. 

Put rhubarb leaves in kettle with some water and bring to a boil. Place 
tarnished silver in with leaves and leave a short time. Take out and dry ; the 
silver will be like new.. 

Rub with soft cloth dipped in ammonia. 

Immerse silverware with sour milk and let stand three-quarters of an 
hour. Rinse, wash and dry. 

Sink Cleaner. — Use common baking soda. It will clean fine. Woodwork 
cleans readily if baking soda is added to the water. 

Sponges. 

Rub with lemon juice and then wash with cold water. 

Rinse first in warm weak soda lye then in clear warm water. Place in 
solution of bromine water and stand in the sun. When whitened, place in 
sun to dry. 

Upholstered Furniture. — Wet a sheet in water and wring it out. Place 
over the piece of upholstered furniture and beat good. This way the dust will 
not fly about the room. 

Ammonia Facts. 

Cheaper than soap or cleansers. 

Cleans spots, grease, woodwork or practically anything about the house. 

Excellent fertilizer for house plants. 

Avoiding Rings. — Add a little salt to gasoline or benzine and the spot 
will disappear without rubbing. This is for cleaning spots. 

For Rings from Gasoline. — Add a few drops of water to gasoline that is 
used for removing stain and it will leave no ring. 

Javelle Water. 

For Stains in White Goods. — First dissolve one pound washing soda in 
quart of boiling water. Then dissolve half pound chloride of lime in two 
quarts of cold water. After settling pour off the solution and mix with the 
soda water. Put in cans and keep in dark. To use this on white goods put 
three teaspoonfuls in water then soak goods for several minutes. When 
boiling clothes add javelle water in boiler. This water should not be used on 
silk or wool. 

To Neutralize Acid on Clothes. — Apply spirits of ammonia immediately 
after the acid has spotted the clothes. 



TO CLEAN CLOTHING 303 

To Remove. 

Broken Cork in Bottle. — Loop fine wire or string and drop into the bottle. 
Empty bottle and catch cork in loop. It can be either pulled out with the 
wire or twine or held so a corkscrew can be put in to pull it out. 

Chewing Gum, — Hold ice on gum spot several minutes. Then crumble 
gum from the clothing. 

Dents in Furniture. — Place damp cloth over dent and apply a hot flat 
iron for a short while. The wood fibre will spring back into place. 

Egg Stains. — Rub salt on egg stain to remove from silver. 

Enamel. — This will remove old enamel. Lay articles in solution of boiling 
alum water. 

Finger Marks. — Kerosene will remove finger marks from oiled furniture, 
and sweet oil from varnished furniture. 

On Books. — Pour benzol on calcined magnesia until it crumbles. Rub 
prints of fingers with it and let it evaporate. A rubber eraser will do the rest. 

Grease. — To take from stove. Mix washing powder and turpentine and 
apply. 

Grease Eraser. — Apply the following solution to the spot : mix equal parts 
of ether, alcohol and benzine. Apply with a sponge. Place a piece of blotting 
paper on either side and iron with a hot iron. 

To Prevent Grease from Spreading. — When lard is spilled on the floor 
throw cold water on it immediately, thus preventing the grease from spreading 
and soaking into the wood. Then it can easily be taken up. 

Heated sawdust will remove grease spots from carpet or linoleum. 
Sprinkle sawdust over spot, leave for a short time and then sweep off. 

On Stove. — Wiping with a newspaper will remove all the grease and 
prevent stove from smoking because of spilled grease. 

On Wallpaper. — Rub marks and spots lightly with damp cloth and pumice 
stone. Wipe with dry cloth. 

On White Shoes. — Mix water with one teaspoonful each of starch and ful- 
ler's earth. Apply to spot, leave for several minutes and brush off. 

Lime. — A strong solution of salt and vinegar will remove lime from 
water bottles, pitchers, etc. 

Match Marks. — Rub the mark with lemon, followed by chalk or whiting. 
Then wash with soap and water. 

Marks on Dishes. — Common table salt will remove brown marks from 
dishes. 

Mildew. — One-eighth ounce each of pulverized resin and gum shellac, %. 
pint of linseed oil, % pint of 98 percent alcohol, well shaken and applied with 
a sponge will remove mildew. This will also remove stains from furniture. 

Cover spot with paste made of lemon juice and salt. This takes it away 
almost immediately. 

Javelle water should be applied to the spots and garment dried in bright 
sun. 



304 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Apply soft soap and salt to white cotton goods, then place in the sun to 
remove mildew. Keep wet. 

Odors. — To remove odor from pasteboard lay it in a solution of viscose 
and water for a few seconds. Place on flat glass or window to dry. 

Odor from Pots and Pans. — Wash and dry the pan and scour it with 
common salt. Place it on the stove until the salt is brown. Shake often and 
afterwards wash the utensil in the usual way. This method is quick and 
simple. 

Paint. — Cover paint spot with lard and soak in turpentine a couple of 
hours. Then wash in hot suds. 

Soaking in turpentine or gasoline will do for cotton or linen goods. Ether 
is better for silks. 

Soak spots in equal parts of turpentine and spirits of ammonia. 

Apply kerosene and alcohol to hinges and slats or shutters of blinds. 
This loosens them quickly. 

Make a mixture of two parts of ammonia and one part oil of turpentine. 
Shake in a bottle until mixed well like milk. Apply to the coating with a 
little oakum and after a few minutes wipe off old paint. This is very effective. 

Rust. — An ink eraser cut to a fine edge will remove rust from many small 
articles. It can be inserted into small cracks and furrows. 

Powdered alum in strong vinegar is good for removing rust. 

Oil of tartar has been found very good for machinery. 

Rub kerosene oil or turpentine on machines and leave over night. Rub 
with fine emery paper or cloth. 

Put white wax in heated benzine, two parts of benzine and one of white 
wax, by weight. Let it dissolve. This gives excellent results when applied 
to rusted tools with a brush. 

Iron pipes can be kept from rusting by filling the pieces with fine saw- 
dust and coating outside with tar and burning. This is good for both inside and 
outside protection. 

Dissolve one teaspoonful of potassium bioxalate, one teacupful of water 
and five teaspoonfuls of glycerine. Moisten the rust or ink spot with this solu- 
tion. Let goods stand three hours, then wash thoroughly. Keep the spot moist 
during the three hours. 

Boiled rice rubbed on rust spots, which are then washed, is fine in re- 
moving rust. 

Rub lard on tin pans then put in hot oven. This will stand water con- 
tinuously and not rust. 

For steel, first rub with kerosene then with coarse sandpaper. 

Put cork in oil and rub rusted part. This takes off rust as well as gives 
a good shine. 

For rust on blue steel, cover it with sweet oil and let stand for a couple 
of days. Then rub with powdered unslaked lime. 

Sour milk is fine for rust on white sroods. 



TO CLEAN CLOTHING 305 

Rhubarb or pie plant juice is excellent for removing rust from clothes or 
dishes. 

Lemon juice and salt will remove rust and is fine for polishing brass. 

Put rust stain over a bowl or pan, sprinkle with oxalic acid and pour 
boiling water on it. 

Put one tablespoonful cream of tartar in quart of boiling water. Put 
rust-stained goods in this and let stand a few minutes. 

Rusty Screw. — Hold a redhot iron to the head of the screw. When the 
screw is hot remove with screwdriver. 

Sooty Smell. — Burn ground coffee in newspaper to remove sooty smell. 

Scratches on Wallpaper. — Moisten a sample of the wallpaper, scrape off 
the color and apply to scratches. Smooth with knife blade. 

Spots. — To rembve white spots from furniture, make a paste of salt and 
olive oil. Rub on spots and let stand an hour or so, then wipe off and polish 
with a dry cloth. 

On Paint. — Rub with cloth dipped in kerosene. 

On Furniture from Heat. — Apply camphor and rub gently with a soft 
cloth and the spot will disappear immediately. 

Mud. — First, dry the material, brush well and if any mud remains wash 
with flannel dipped in hot coffee with several drops of ammonia added. This 
applies to black silk and wool goods. 

Oil Spots from Feathers. — Swab spot with (sal) ammonia. Rinse with 
clear water. It may be repeated several times. Not injurious. 

Apply clean butter. After standing a while scrape off and wash the spot 
with tepid water and soap. 

Mud. — After brushing dry mud spots thoroughly, rub with a slice of raw 
potato. This is fine. 

Making a colored stitch over or around a spot on clothes before being 
sent to the cleaner will assure you of their being cleaned. Often a spot when 
not caught by a glance, will not be seen or found by the cleaner. 

Alcohol applied with a soft cloth will also remove spots from dark wood. 

Spirits of camphor rubbed on spot carefully with a soft cloth, then good 
furniture polish applied, will remove white spots from furniture. 

A mixture of one teaspoonful of ammonia in one gallon of warm water 
will remove whitewash spots from carpet. 

Vaseline spots can be removed before they are washed by applying 
kerosene. 

White Spots on Varnish. — Rub with soft cloth soaked in turpentine. 

Stains. — For removing any kind of stains from rugs. Use one box of 
borax and J4 pound of soap chips. Boil chips in water, cool and then sprinkle 
rug with borax, one section at a time. Wash with suds. Use fresh suds for 
each section. Stains will be removed. 

Blood Stains. — Peroxide of hydrogen is best for fresh stain while soap 
and cold water are best for old stains. 



306 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Bluing Stain. — Place one teaspoonful of muriatic acid in two gallons of 
water. Boil the stained garments in this solution. This will remove the 
stains. 

Coffee Stains. — For wool, silk or chiffon brush stain with glycerin then 
with warm water. Press on wrong side. 

Coffee Stains. — Pour boiling water and borax over coffee stain. 

Dye Stains. — Soak dye spots in ammonia water. 

Fruit Stains. — Fresh stains can usually be removed simply by pouring 
boiling water on them while holding over a bowl. 

Sponge goods with clear water. Then rub with peroxide of hydrogen or 
soap and ammonia. 

For orange stains, moisten spot with cold water. Hang in bright sun. 

Hold spot over bowl and pour Javelle water on it. 

Tie cream of tartar about stain in linen and boil it in soapsuds for a few 
minutes. Then rinse in clean cold water. 

For freshly soiled table linen cover, strain dampened laundry starch 
through the linen. This absorbs the color. 

Grass Stains. — Alcohol is best for goods that cannot be washed. 

Butter and salt is fine. 

Make a paste of soap and baking powder. Apply this to the stains on 
coat collar and sleeves. 

Fresh stains respond to soaking in alcohol. Old stains may be taken out 
by rubbing molasses in well and allowing it to stay several hours before 
washing out. 

Grass stains can be removed by thoroughly rubbing with table syrup, 
then washing. 

Grease Stains. — Gasoline or ether is good, but should be applied in the 
open air or near open window away from a fire. Starch can be mixed to make 
a paste before applying. 

Heat Stains on Polished Wood. — First apply hot irons on four blotters 
laid over the surface. Then while warm rub paraffin into the spot following 
up by brisk rubbing with a flannel rag. 

Iodine. — Swab spots with alcohol on cloth or apply paste of starch and 
cold water. Rinse with cold water. 

Ink. — To remove from carpets. After as much has been taken up as pos- 
sible with a sponge, pour cold water on spot repeatedly, taking up liquid 
with sponge each time. Rub place with a little oxalic acid dissolved in cold 
water, then rub with hartshorn. 

Ink Eraser. — One part citric acid, 10 parts distilled water, 2 parts of con- 
centrated solution of borax. Dissolve citric acid in water and add borax. In 
applying to the paper use a delicate camel's hair pencil, removing with a 
Motter any excess of water. 

A mixture of equal parts of tartaric acid, citric acid and oxalic acid dis- 
solved in just enough water to give a clean solution, acts energetically on most 
inks. 



TO CLEAN CLOTHING 307 

First place stained spot over deep dish. Cover with powdered borax. 
Then pour hydrogen peroxide over it. This is a quick remover. 

Removing Ink from Linen. — Mash juice from a couple of strong onions 
and add a half ounce of white soap and two ounces fuller's earth. Place this 
in a cup of vinegar and stir till it boils. After cooling, spread it on the ink 
spot and put in sun to dry. After the linen is boiled every trace of the ink 
will have disappeared. 

Put boiled rice instead of soap in boiler with ink-stained article. This 
is fine. After boiling, rinse the goods in clear water. 

Ink Remover. — Mix 10 parts of oxalic acid, 2 parts of stamic chloride, 5 
parts of acetic acid, 500 parts of water. Soak spot with mixture. 

Leather. — For stockings, put two tablespoonsful of borax in water and 
wash stockings in it. 

Medicine. — Apply alcohol; in most cases it will absorb stain. 

Milk. — Fresh milk stains are best treated with soap and cold water. 

Perspiration Stain. — Place stain on white blotter and sponge with alcohol 
and ether mixed equally. Rub dry and apply ammonia. 

Peruvian Balsam Stain. — Place stain over filter paper and moisten with 
chloroform. Don't rub. Do this near open window. 

Scorch Stains. — If it is white linen, wet spot and lay goods in bright 
sunshine. 

Sunburn. — Vaseline should be rubbed on hands, face and neck before 
going into the glaring sun or hot wind. 

Tar on Clothes. — Rub lard on tar spot. Scrape off then wash out the 
grease with soap and water. 

Tar on Hands. — Rub hands with lard then wash off with soap and water. 
Cold cream will soften hands after washing. 

Varnish Stains. — Wet stain with gasoline then rub baking soda into it. 
Let stand half hour. Rinse in gasoline then wash in soap and water. 

Wax Stains. — Place white blotting paper over and under wax stain and 
press with hot iron. 



BUGS AND PESTS. 

Ants. 

Fill a container with water and put under table, the legs of cabinets 
and refrigerators. Ants fall in and drown. 

Sprinkle pepper where ants are found. 

Mix corrosive sublimate and wood alcohol. Spray the shelves and floor 
in pantry. This will destroy the ants. 

For ants in trees, fumigate with any one of several materials obtained 
from drug store and put a ring of tar around the tree several feet from the 
ground. 

Cucumbers or their peelings placed in pantrys or refrigerators have given 
wonderful results in keeping ants away. 

Wormwood leaves spread around ant holes act very well in driving ants 
away. 

Walnut shells will collect ants rapidly, then they can be thrown into the 
fire. 

Soak a sponge in sugar water, then squeeze out. The ants will fill the 
sponge and it can be dropped into boiling water. 

Rub the edge of dishes holding foods with cedar oil or oil of sassafras. 

Ants like grease. Put small quantity of liquid grease in pan and thus 
collect the ants. 

Brush all parts and corners of refrigerator and shelves with gasoline. 
This will drive ants away. 

One ounce each of powdered aloes and insect powder scattered around 
shelves and holes, will keep the ants away. 

Boil 2 ounces of cape aloes in a pint of water, then add 1/4. ounce camphor 
gum. Wash floors and shelves. Pour or spray around holes. 

Bees. 

If bothered with bees fill pan with sugar water. They will become wet 
and drown. 

Bird Robbers of Fruit. 
Tie white cloths in trees. Hang little bells on the limbs. 

Bugs. 

Bedbugs. — Brush bed springs and mattress with the following mixture: 
J4 ounce corrosive sublimate, l / 4 ounce powdered camphor, ! 4 pint wood 
alcohol and Y\ pint of spirits of turpentine. 

Spray kerosene oil in all the joints of the bed and fill cracks with plaster of 
paris. 

Fresh paint with lots of turpentine will drive bedbugs away. 

30s 



BUGS AND PESTS 309 

One-half teaspoonful oil of pennyroyal, 4 ounces of turpentine and a quart 
of kerosene. Mix and apply to cracks and springs with a brush. 

Book Bugs. — Blow powdered flour and pyretheum into the backs of books 
and on shelves. 

Carpet Bugs. — Spray carpets and floors with a solution of one quart of 
hot boiling water and one tablespoonful of corrosive sublimate. 

Bugs on Cucumber Vines. — Sprinkle flour or air-slaked lime around the 
plants. 

Alum or Salt for Bugs. — Dissolve salt or alum in boiling water and pour 
into cracks in wood. 

To Keep Bugs, etc., from Wallpaper. — Add 2 teaspoonfuls of colocynth 
powder to each pint of paste before papering. 

To Rid Greens of Bugs. — After picking off all dead leaves and other 
foreign matter, just put a small quantity of vinegar into the panful of water in 
which you rinse the greens. You will be surprised to see how the little bugs will 
drop off into the vinegar water. 

Flower Bugs. — Boil tobacco stems in water for twenty minutes. Spray 
on the plants. The stems also keep moths away. 

Grain Weevil. — Burn sulphur in pans after closing all doors and windows 
of granary. Fumigate before and after putting grain in bin. 

Potato Bug. — Paris green sprayed on plants will kill the bugs. 

Carbonate of lime may be sifted on the plants. 

Make a solution by soaking mandrake roots for two days and strain. 
Sprinkle on plants and the younger bugs will die before changing plants. 

Drop three seeds of flax in each potato hill. No insects will bother flax plants, 
so the potatoes are protected. Let the flax grow. 

Crickets. — Sprinkle quick lime near doors and cracks. It keeps away 
crickets. 

Fleas. 

Oil of pennyroyal, or pennyroyal plant leaves if applied to body of animals 
will keep the fleas away. 

Apply mixture of 2y 2 drams oil of cloves; J / 2 dram carbolic acid; 3 ounces 
water; diluted alcohol 2 ounces. Sprinkle on beds and bedding. 

Put soap and water on the floors. 

Put naphthalene powder on carpets and floors. Also on cats and dogs. 

Flies. 

Fly Catcher. — Sprinkle little sugar on piece of old carpet. When flies 
gather simply use the vacuum cleaner on it. 

Cut a small hole in box cover and apply syrup around the hole on one side 
of the box. Turn cover over a glass half filled with soapsuds, being sure the 
sticky side is down. The flies will crawl into hole and drown in the water. 

To Kill Flies. — Put a blotter in a solution of one teaspoonful each of 
eucalyptus oil and oil of pennyroyal. This solution will kill flies quickly. 



310 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Oil of lavender, y 2 teaspoonful, placed on a sponge soaked in boiling water is 
fine to use in fighting flies. 

The fumes from a teaspoonful of carbolic acid on a hot shovel will quickly 
kill the flies in a room. Close doors, windows and get out of room. 

Kerosene oil is good if poured into the sink or around the places where food is 
.setting or water is thrown. 

Screens should always be used. Prevention will do many times the good a 
cure will do. A fly which begins to lay eggs in June will have a billion offspring 
by September. Kill early in the year. 

The following spray is good to drive the flies away from room or porch where 
the baby sleeps : eucalyptus 10 parts, bergamot oil 3 parts, acetic ether 10 parts, 
cologne water 50 parts, 9 per cent alcohol, 100 parts. Mix. Use 1 part of this 
solution with 10 parts water for spraying. 

The fumes from two pounds of burning pyretheum powder (Persian insect 
powder) per 1,000 cu. ft. of air space will either kill or stupefy flies or mosquitoes 
so that they may be swept up and burned. The powder may be placed in pots and 
pans and lighted after sprinkling with alcohol. 

To Keep Away Flies and Mosquitoes. — Put a few drops oil of penny- 
royal in saucer on chair or window-sill. 

Put laurel oil around pictures and curtains. 

Make fly swatter of old screen and limber stick. 

Fly Mixture for Cattle. — Take 2 quarts of fish oil, 1 quart oil of tar, and 
add four teaspoonsful of carbolic acid. Mix well and apply with sprayer or whisk 
broom. 

Fly Mixture. — Spraying places with pine oil will keep flies from breeding 
near them. 

Fly Mixture and Insect Bites. — Mix one ounce each of oil of citronella, 
spirits of camphor, and oil of cedar. Sprinkle two or three drops on a hand- 
kerchief. If hung near the head this will keep mosquitoes away while one is 
sleeping. 

Fly Poison. — Apply one pound of borax for every four feet of space occu- 
pied by manure. Sprinkle about the barn at times. This has been found very good. 

Simple Rules for Fly Time. — Keep garbage buckets carefully covered and 
perfectly clean. Pour kerosene into the drains. 

Burn or bury all table refuse and see that no decaying vegetable matter is left 
about the premises. 

A stable should be carefully screened as well as the house in order to prevent 
fly breeding and save much annoyance to the horses. 

Exterminate flies and mosquitoes by exposing a saucer of 1 per cent formalin 
solution. 

Gnats. 

Apply camphor to body and to stings of the gnats. 

Rub kerosene on the hands. Put a few drops into bath water at night. 



BUGS AND PESTS 311 

Inseets. 

On Plants. — Mix one cup kerosene oil and 2 quarts thin milk. Sprinkle 
or spray on plants. Dust with powdered helebore. 

An effective insect destroyer is made of heated alum water. 

Lice. 

Apple Tree Louse. — Spray with strong tobacco juice and lime made in 
a thin solution. This is very effective. 

Chicken Lice. — Tie tape to legs of chicken and hang to tree several feet 
from ground. Good lice powder, snuff or wood ashes can then be sprinkled 
through the feathers to the skin. Also under the wings and legs. 

Take 5 pounds of sublimated sulphur, l / 2 pound powdered naphthalene, 2 
pounds fuller's earth, and 1 teaspoonful of carbolic acid. Mix these and sprin- 
kle nests. 

Oil of eucalyptus may be dropped about nests or an Qgg soaked in it and laid 
in nest. 

For Head Lice. — Grind 5c worth of "fish berries" and cover with pure 
alcohol over night. Apply to scalp at night. Wash hair next day and use fine 
toothed comb. This is poison if taken inwardly. 

Mix kerosene (1 cup) and vinegar (1 cup) and wash the hair. Cover head 
with towel for short time then wash hair with soap and water. 

Rosebush Lice and Ants. — Spray with a solution of tobacco or nicotine as 
directed. 

Boil stavesacre seed and apply. This is one of the finest remedies known. 
These seeds applied in almost any form are successful. 

Mice. 

Place few drops of oil of peppermint about the holes and on the shelves and 
they will leave. 

Mosquitoes. 

Mix 3 ounces of sweet or olive oil with 1 ounce of carbolic acid. Rub 
exposed parts but do not get in eyes. 

Mix pennyroyal and peppermint and apply. 

A powder made of six parts oil of eucalyptus, 12 parts powdered talcum, 
and 84 parts of starch, should be applied to exposed portions of the body and face 
by means of a powder puff in order to keep the mosquitoes away. 

When annoyed by mosquitoes during camping, rub the hands and face with a 
little glycerine, and the mosquitoes will bother you no more. 

Flies and mosquitoes may be repelled by leaving a bottle of oil of pennyroyal 
uncorked in bedroom at night. A little laurel oil on backs of picture frames 
will repel them. 

Glycerine rubbed on hands and face will keep them away. 



312 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

1 teaspoonful eucalyptus oil; 2 teaspoonfuls powdered talcum and y 2 cup 
of starch. Apply to exposed parts of body. 

Moths. 

Corn Moth, — Clean floors of crib then wash floors and walls with strong 
solution of vinegar and salt. Salt can also be thrown into crib with corn. 

To Kill Moths. — One dram flour of hops ; snuff, 2 ounces ; flake camphor, 
1 ounce ; black pepper, 1 ounce ; cedar sawdust, 4 ounces ; mix this well and put 
around in cupboards or put in bag among furs and clothes. 

Mix 2 teaspoonfuls of powdered alum and 1 of black pepper. Put upon 
the floor before laying rugs or carpet. 

Hot alum water is good to kill moths. 

Shake clothes and put in sunshine every few weeks. 

A mixture of 1 dram of white pepper, 2 drams of camphor, 5 drams of 
naphthalene and some insect powder is used. 

A mixture of 1 dram of capsicum, 5 drams of insect powder, and 4 drams 
of naphthalene will drive away moths. 

Ground cedar wood or cedar chests are fine for keeping away moths. 

Brush clothes clean, hang in sunshine for several hours then place tar balls 
or camphor with them when laying away. 

Boil 1 ounce cayenne pepper in 1 quart of water. Add y 2 teaspoonful of 
strychnine powder. Sprinkle this in boxes and clothes closets where moths may 
come. 

Moth Preventives. — Equal parts of ground tobacco stems and insect pow- 
der make a good moth powder. 

Para Dichlorbenzol is the latest real moth destroyer. It may be purchased 
in crystalline powder form or as a liquid, the vapor of which kills the moth, 
their eggs and larvae. 

The liquid preparation may be used as a paint for chests, trunks or wardrobes. 
It can be used as a spray onto the goods, in case it does not discolor them. Liquids 
containing benin, carbon tetra-chloride, oil of turpentine are preferred because 
alcohol will affect most of the aniline dyes. The liquid may be used to saturate 
blotting paper and placed between goods. 

Directions for Preventing Moths. — Thoroughly beat, shake and brush, 
and in case of furs also comb the goods, then expose them to the sunlight as long 
as possible. Sprinkle the moth powder between goods, and on top in abundance 
in case of exposure to air. The goods should be placed in tight receptacles as 
boxes, trunks, etc., in order that the odor of powder will thoroughly pen- 
etrate the goods and no moths can be admitted. 

Several Good Moth Powders Are As Follows: 

Camphor,' 20 grammes; white pepper, 10 grammes; insect powder and 
naphthalene, 50 grammes of each. 



BUGS AND PESTS 313 

Napto Moth Powder consists of the following parts: 10 grammes of 
Capsicum, 40 grammes naphthalene, and 50 grammes insect powder. 

Cedar Mothaline composed of equal parts of ground cedar wood and naph- 
thalene is good 

Roaches. 

To Kill Roaches. — Dust or sprinkle a half and half mixture of sodium 
fluorid and flour in cracks and on floors. 

Blow a mixture of one ounce of flour and sugar, one ounce of powdered 
saffron and one-half pound of borax, into cracks and places frequented by 
roaches. 

Sprinkle powdered borax and powdered chocolate in cracks. 

Flowers of sulphur or powdered pyretheum is good to sprinkle around. 

Phosphorus paste consisting of a cup of flour and a half teaspoonful of phos- 
phorus will kill roaches. 

Mix 7 ounces insect powder, 6 ounces ground cinnamon, and 1 ounce pow- 
dered white hellebore. Sprinkle in places where needed. 

Take a pan with two- or three-inch sides and grease it with poor butter. Set 
it in the cupboard or on the floor. Roaches will climb over edges and fall into 
pan. Grease keeps them from getting out. Kill roaches in fire or hot water. 

Sparrows. 

To Drive Away. — Hang moth balls near sparrows' nests and they will 
leave. 

Spiders. 

Soak cotton wool in oil of pennyroyal and tie it in corners or near webs. 

Tobacco in Garden Use. 

Boil tobacco stems in water twenty minutes and use on nasturtiums or other 
plants and flowers. It is harmless to plants, and keeps the bugs away. 

Bury tobacco stems in the ground in the autumn or a week before planting 
seeds, for a good cheap fertilizer. The odor of tobacco stems makes a good 
substitute for moth balls. 

Worms. 

Ball Worm. — For corn relief, the corn must be planted early so it may 
ripen early. Large fires at night will burn many worms that are drawn to the 
fires. 

Apple Tree Borers or Worms. — A brush and strong lye soapsuds will 
kill the borers, if the trunks of the trees are washed in the spring. 

On bushes, the affected limbs should be cut close and burned. 

Cabbage Maggot. — Mix one pound hard and one quart soft soap in one 
gallon of water. Add one pint of crude carbolic acid. When applying to or 
spraying cabbage plants, put one and one-half teaspoonful of the mixture in 
a cup of water. 



314 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Cabbage Worms. — Put one tablespoonful of saltpeter in 3 gallons of water. 
Sprinkle on cabbage plants. 

Caterpillars. — Boil foxglove in water and spray bushes. 

Sift powdered helebore on infected bushes. 

When large webs collect in trees, containing caterpillars, tie a rag soaked in 
kerosene to the end of a pole and burn out the nests. If this is done early, 
excellent results are obtained. 

Cutworms. — Wrap paper on tomato stems before planting. This will 
keep away cutworms. 

Cut cardboard into two inch strips. Soak in kerosene oil. Wrap once around 
plant stalks before planting. This is fine to keep away cutworms. 

Strawberry Worms. — Spray plants with solution of half pound of white 
helebore in 10 gallons of water. 

Tobacco Worm. — On account of their destructiveness it pays to look 
carefully over the leaves with pincers, or with gloves on ; when one is found kill. 



LAUNDRY HELPS 

Washing. 

For Soaking Clothes. — Make a solution consisting of 1 tablespoonful of 
turpentine, 1 bar ordinary soap, 2 tablespoonfuls ammonia, and 3 gallons water. 

Saving Time When Washing. — Make a soap solution before beginning 
the washing. It is more easily handled and gives a quick suds. Its use will 
save time and money. Have plenty of hot water before beginning. If using 
hard water soften it, with a teaspoonful of borax to each gallon of water. 

Quick Remedy for Sprung Leak. — Should your wash boiler spring a leak, 
an emergency remedy is to put in some corn meal. This fills up the hole at 
once. 

Saving Time on Ironing Days. — Fold dust cloths, Turkish towels, etc., 
at the middle and put through the wringer. Try this once and you will con- 
tinue. 

To Correctly Put on a Silk Glove. — Work each finger and the thumb 
down separately. Never use force by putting the finger of the opposite hand 
into the crotch of the fingers. You can easily break the seam and ruin the 
glove by not following these directions. 

Keeping Table Pads Clean. — Cut thin oilcloth to fit shape of tables. Place 
this between the table pads and table cloths. 

No Frayed Corners When Hanging Sheets. — When hanging sheets to 
dry, do not hang them from the middle, but fold the ends together, then pin 
on the line. 

To Retain Heat in Flatirons. — To retain the heat of an iron twice as long 
as usual, use a brick for an iron stand. 

Drying Curtains. — Hang two curtains together on the line lengthwise. 
This makes them dry straight and saves time and worry. 

Dyeing Children's Hose. — Crepe paper may be used for dyeing hose by 
putting enough of the paper in the rinse water to obtain the color wanted. 

Dyeing Goods. — Always use soft water, 4 gallons to each pound of goods 
to be dyed. Always clean goods well first. After dyeing, always- air, rinse 
and dry them. Hang the goods on clothes hangers, wooden ones preferred 
to avoid rust. 

Fireless Dress. — Put one ounce of sal ammoniac or alum in the starch 
to stiffen cotton or muslin goods, or in the last water when rinsing. This 
renders them practically fireproof and makes it impossible for them to burn 
with flame. Use especially for children's clothes. 

315 



316 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

To Make Lace Yellow. — Dip in tea or coffee. 

To Fix Dyes. — Add 3 ounces of bichromate of potash to a solution of 
twenty ounces of gelatin dissolved in water. Do this in a dark room. Then 
add the coloring matter. Put the goods in this and expose to the light. The 
color will be fast. 

Blue Dye. — Make a decoction of one pound of lacmus or litmus and a 
sufficient quantity of potash lye. 

Red Dye. — In a lye of potash boil ground brazil wood. This is fine in 
which to boil straw hats to obtain a rich red color. 

Into a weak water of carbonate of potash dissolve carmine, or this may 
be dissolved in ammonia. Powdered cochineal dissolved in water to which 
a little gum is added will be found satisfactory. 

Liquid Dye Colors. 

Blue. — Dilute sulphate of indigo with water and neutralize with chalk 
for delicate work. 

Purple. — To a strained decoction of logwood add a small amount of alum. 

Fine Bluing for Clothes. — Put J4 ounce of oxalic acid in a quart of clean 
rain water, add 1 ounce of soft Prussian blue which has been powdered. Use 
1 teaspoonful for a good sized washing. 

Fine Cleansing Fluid. — Use a strong solution of borax in washing the 
kitchen towels and blankets. 

Fine Hard Soap. — Strain 5 pounds of melted grease through cheesecloth. 
Dissolve a can of concentrated lye in a quart of water. Dissolve a table- 
spoonful of sugar in Y\ cup of ammonia and add to the lye solution. Then 
dissolve 2/3 cup of borax in warm water and add. Put lukewarm grease with 
this mixture and stir until it thickens. Put into a granite pan. Cut into cakes 
as it hardens. This soap is pure and excellent for dishes. 

To greatly increase the value of starch add one of the following: 

Borax to make the garment more glossy, whiter, and more lasting. 

Alum to improve the color, increase pliability, and to thin the starch. 

Butter, lard, wax or turpentine to add smoothness and finish. 

Gum arabic to increase its stiffening power. 

Stir the starch with a paraffin candle while boiling to add glossiness and 
smoothness when ironing. 

Starch Lustre. — To Yz pound of starch add a piece of stearine the size of 
a quarter, then boil for 4 or 5 minutes. Apply to linen and it will greatly add 
to its beauty. 

Rice Water as Starch. — Boil rice as usual and use the water to stiffen 
flimsy waists and dress goods. This is a good substitute for starch. 

Fine White Soap. — Dissolve one can lye in three pints cold water and 
one cup borax. Strain five pounds grease through cheesecloth and add to 
above while quite hot. Stir for at least 30 minutes, then add two tablespoon- 



LAUNDRY HELPS 317 

fuls of ammonia. Line a pan with heavy paper and into this pour the con- 
tents. Cut in squares when cold and let stand for three weeks. 

Fine Washing Fluid. — Into one gallon of soft water put one ounce of 
salts of tartar, one ounce dry ammonia, and one can potash. To a boiler of 
clothes use one teacupful. Put clothes in cold water and let come to a boil. 

Washing Fluid Which Requires No Rubbing. — An excellent fluid which 
requires no rubbing is made by mixing 5 cents worth of salts of tartar, 4 cents 
worth of ammonia, one small package borax, one small can of lye, one cake 
common soap, and one gallon water. Stop boiling when soap is dissolved. 
After the clothes have been soaked all night use one cup of fluid to each boiler 
of clothes. 

To Clean Bathtubs, Sinks, Etc. — Rub the sink or bathtub with a cloth 
dampened in kerosene. This makes the stains come off easily. 

To Clean Soiled Leather. — To remove every spot from soiled leather dip 
a piece of cloth in spirits of wine and rub the spots. 

To Clean Ribbons, Silks, and Satins. — When only lightly soiled they 
may be cleaned by brushing with powdered starch, magnesia, or bread 
crumbs. They should then be well dusted. 

To Clean Velvet. — A good method of cleaning any kind of velvet is to 
sponge it with benzoline, and apply a weak solution of gum arabic to the back. 
Then sew in a frame (an embroidery frame will do) and press the velvet on 
the wrong side through a damp rag. To raise the nap, hold it with the wrong 
side downward over a basin of water. To remove grease spots, pour turpen- 
tine on the spot and rub with a flannel till dry. 

Removing Chocolate or Tea Stains. — Cover the spot with borax and soak 
in cold water. Soak in glycerine, then wash. 

Coffee, Fruit, or Indigo Stains. — Spread over bowl and pour boiling water 
from a sufficient height to strike the stain with considerable force. 

Grass Stains. — Salt and butter applied as a mixture is good. 

After applying lard wash with a strong soapy water. 

Wash with naphtha soap and warm water. 

Soak in alcohol. 

Apply molasses, or a paste of baking soda and soap for colored fabrics. 

Grease Spots. — Dissolve the grease in benzine, alcohol, carbona, or ether. 

Lamp Black. — Pour kerosene on the spot. Wash thoroughly with 
naphtha soap and water. 

Ink. — Remove a fresh ink stain by soaking it in fresh milk. 

Wet the stain in cold water. Apply a solution of oxalic acid, and repeat 
in a few minutes. Rinse the material in water to which ammonia or borax 
has been added. 

Treat the stain with lemon juice and salt. 

Machine Oil. — Use turpentine to wet the stain. In a few minutes wet 
again and pat with a cloth. Continue this treatment several times if necessary. 



318 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Mildew. — Wet the spots with lemon juice then expose to the sun. A 
paste of powdered chalk applied to the stain and exposure to the sun is good. 
Perspiration. — Expose to the sun after washing well in soapsuds. Treat 
with a ten percent solution of oxalic acid. 

Scorch. — If the threads are uninjured, wet the stained part and expose 
to the action of the sun. 

Paint. — Wet with turpentine, alcohol, or benzine. After it has stood for 
a few minutes, wet again and sponge with a clean, cloth. Repeat until the 
paint disappears. If the paint is old use equal parts of turpentine and am- 
monia. 

Treat varnish stains the same as for paint. 

Iron Rust. — Rub the stain well with salt and lemon juice, then place the 
garment in the sun. 

Wet the stained part with ammonia, or borax and water and spread over 
a bowl of boiling water. Apply a ten percent solution of hydrochloric acid 
until the stain begins to brighten. This acid should be applied drop by drop. 
Then dip in alkaline water at once. Rinse in borax or ammonia water which 
will neutralize any remaining acid. 

Renewing Rusty Looking Silk. — Sponge with potato water and the silk 
will be made clean and look like new. 

Stove Polish. — Kerosene applied to the spot which is then washed with 
a strong soapsuds will remove even an old stain. 

Vaseline. — Wash with turpentine or kerosene. Do not boil as this will 
set the stain. 

Wagon Grease. — Soften with oil or lard and wash vigorously in strong, 
soapy water. 

Keeping Bedspreads Fresh. — Put some starch in the last water in which 
you rinse the spreads. They do up nicer and keep clean and fresh much 
longer. 

Cleansing Blankets. — Dissolve one cake of naphtha soap in a tub of cold 
water. Let the blanket stand in this for twelve hours. Run cold water over 
it until the soap is removed. Hang the dripping blankets out of doors- Cur- 
tains and spreads may be washed the same way. 

When Washing Chiffon.— Squeeze until clean in lukewarm soapy water. 
Dissolve a lump of sugar in the rinsing water. After being ironed this gives 
a little firmness to the fabric. 

To Launder Centerpieces. — Iron first with no starch. Then put the 
centerpieces on a board and place over them a thin cloth saturated in raw 
starch. Iron them smooth and dry. 

To Launder Colored Fabrics. — Set the color before the garments are 
washed by soaking them in water to which has been added 2 cups of salt to 
each gallon of water. Salt cannot be used with soapy water; rinse carefully 
before putting them into the wash water. 



LAUNDRY HELPS 319 

To Stiffen Crocheted Baskets, Etc. — Make a stiff flour paste ; after soak- 
ing crocheted article in it, dry it on a pint or quart dish. Then put several 
coats of shellac on both sides of the basket. 

Washing Flannels. — Soak flannels 15 minutes in warm soapy water. 
Scrub with brush on washboard instead of rubbing. They clean much quicker 
and are stretched. They will be soft when dry. 

To Wash Garment with Colored Trimming. — Cover the trimming with 
a white cloth after you have first lightly wrung the garment out, and wring 
it again. It is then too nearly dry to run into the white. Do not use hot 
starch nor soak colored goods. 

Doing Up Curtains. — Boil dried onion skins for 10 minutes and strain. 
Use this water to make the starch for the curtains. They will come out a 
pretty, evenly colored tan. 

Washing Crepe de Chine. — Put a piece of crepe paper of the same color 
as the waist into the rinsing water. In this way the cloth will retain its 
original color and appear as fresh as new. 

To Wash Heavy Quilts. — Lay the quilt on a flat surface. Scrub the 
quilt thoroughly with a good lather and a soft scrub brush. Plang it on a 
clothesline and rinse thoroughly. Dry by turning as necessary. In this way 
the batting will remain light and the heavy lifting is avoided. 

Washing Handkerchiefs When Traveling. — Wash and rinse them, then 
smooth out full size on a window pane ; as soon as dried they look like new. 

Laundering Lace Articles. — Put three or four lumps of loaf sugar in 
cold water. After they are dissolved crisp the lace articles in this fluid. 
Stretch the pieces while wet, then dry on a towel. 

Renewing Lace Veil. — Put veil in white soapy water. Use soft water if 
possible. Boil slowly for twenty minutes. Rinse several times after squeez- 
ing the water out lightly. Use a small quantity of weak boiled starch in the 
last water. Dry by pinning on white cloth. 

To Get Overalls Clean. — Scrub them with a scrub brush which has been 
thoroughly soaped. This gives better results than washing them on a board. 

When Laundering Silk or Pongee. — After washing the garment quickly 
roll it in a dry cloth while wet. Never sprinkle silk. Add a small amount of 
gelatin to the rinsing water. This gives enough stiffness with no starchy 
look. 

To Wash Silk Hose. — Wash first in borax water, then in slightly warm 
soapy water. Squeeze and rinse in at least two waters. Never wring them 
out. Fold the stockings in a hot wet towel for 45 minutes. Press with a cool 
iron on the wrong side. 

Keeping Veils Clean and Crisp.- — Wash veils in thick suds. Rinse three 
times in water then rinse once in skimmed sweet milk. Squeeze the veil as 
dry as possible, then wave back and forth until quite dry. Veils washed this 
way last much longer and look like new. 



320 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

White Corduroy. — Wash until apparently clean, using good soap. Boil 
30 minutes in soapy water. Rinse in three waters, then rinse in cold bluing 
water. Hang in open air to dry without wringing. Do not iron. This gives 
satisfactory results. 

After Washing a Sweater. — Make a hammock of any thin material and 
lay the sweater on it. Be sure the hammock is flat so the garment will not 
leed to be doubled up. This keeps the sweater from losing its shape. 

To Wash White Gloves. — Use pure white soap and slightly warm water. 
Never fold them when wet. It is best to wash them on the hands ; otherwise 
stretch carefully while still wet. 

To Take Yellow Out of White Goods. — Put a few drops of turpentine 
into the water when washing white goods. Dry in the sun on the grass. 

To Make Easier Washing of White Clothes. — Lemon juice helps to re- 
move grease and dirt. It whitens and refreshes white clothes and makes the 
washing easier. Do not use for colored clothes. 

Washing White Clothes or Chamois Gloves. — Rub the glove with the 
white of an egg while still wet. This keeps the gloves from getting a yel- 
lowish look. 

When White Silk Turns Yellow. — Wash the articles with white soap 
and cold water. Lay them in sour milk over night. Rinse several times and 
dry in the shade, preferably in the house. This bleaches them white. 

Washing Much-Soiled Woolens and Delicate Colors. — Use a solution of 
34 pound borax, y 2 pound of mild soap and 3 quarts of water. 

Washing Woolens and Flannels. — If you would keep woolens and flannels 
as soft as new be sure to rinse them in soapy water. 

Drying. 

Drying Clothes. — The last rinsing water should be warm, salty water. The 
clothes do not stick to the line nor freeze so quickly and they dry faster. 

Hanging Curtains Properly. — Cut the selvage from portiere material and 
turn in one-half inch and then make the two-inch hem. This insures perfect 
hanging and straight folds. 

To Dry Heavy Articles. — When drying a comforter or blanket place it 
on the line, then slip several coathangers under it on the clothes line, allowing 
it to dry tent fashion. This will permit the air to circulate between the two 
parts. 

Drying Irish Lace. — Dry by pinning in a little frame, the same as with 
lace curtains. Do this instead of ironing and it will look like new. 

Drying Net Curtains. — Put them at the windows on the poles while wet. 
They will hang straight and in graceful folds when dry. 

Saving Pillows. — Avoid hanging pillows in the sun to air as this draws 
the oil out of the feathers. 



Clothes 



LAUNDRY HELPS 321 

To Make Tablecloth Smoother. — After washing tablecloth roll and fold 
once or twice on mailing tubes of cardboard. This makes fewer creases and 
a smoother cloth. 

Ironing. 

Ironing, to Hold Cover in Place. — Put a couple of screw TT^.'.'rTT 
eyes or tacks on each side underneath the ends of the ironing jfly \ ( 
board. Then tie a heavy cord or tape over the cover. This will J i \ 
hold it in place. 

To Dampen for Hasty Ironing. — After washing the article, 
wrap it in a Turkish towel. This makes it easy to iron by 
absorbing the water. If the article is dry, dampen it in a wet 
warm Turkish towel. This makes the ironing easy. 

Ironing Starched* Pieces. — When boiling the starch, stir it 
several times with a paraffin candle. Ironing the starched pieces Sprinkler 
will then give insurance of glossiness and smoothness. 

Starched Articles Sticking to Iron. — Add a small quantity of lard and 
a pinch of salt to the boiled starch. This will prevent the starched articles 
from sticking. 

To Take Shine From Blue Serge. — Brush to eliminate all dust. Go over 
the shiny parts with a good solution of common wash blue. Dry outside or 
out-of-doors. Repeat whenever necessary. 

To Take Shine From Cloth. — Take a fine steel suede shoe brush to remove 
the shine from worn cloth. Brush with a circular motion. This is much 
better than pumice-stone. 

To Keep Silk Looking New. — Always press silk under dampened mus- 
lin and use a moderately hot iron until the muslin is dry. This keeps silk from 
becoming crackly and hard. 

Sponging, Pressing and Removing Spots. — Brush the suit thoroughly, 
then sponge with a slightly warm mixture of three-fourths common ammonia 
and one-fourth water until well moistened. Hang up to dry, then press with a 
heavy iron having a cloth over the goods. Remove any grease spots that may 
be left, by using gasoline. 

To Keep the Color of Matting. — Wash matting frequently in salt water to 
prevent it from becoming dark colored. 

Cover for Wash Tub. — A good cover for a set wash tub is to cover it with 
oilcloth. Nail one side of the cloth to the tub and nail the opposite edge to 
an old broom stick which is rolled back to open the tub. 

For Sprinkling Clothes. — With a cheap whisk broom you can sprinkle the 
clothes quickly and keep the hands dry. 

When Bleaching Linen. — Put a slice of lemon or a teaspoonful of per- 
oxide of hydrogen in the water for soaking clothes. Either of these will 
act as a bleach and are harmless. 



322 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Shrinking Cotton Goods. — Lay it in a bathtub filled with hot water. 
Lift it carefully to the edge of the tub when the water is cold and let it drain 
into the tub. Keep the folds smooth. It will not need to be ironed. 

The Use of Lye. — Sprinkle vessels which have held milk or cooked food, 
with lye. Follow this with boiling water and they will be as clean as new. 

Bleaching Cotton. — Take one pound of chloride of lime and one small 
tablespoonful of washing soda. Dissolve them in soft water. This is enough 
for 30 yards of goods. Leave the cloth in this solution for 15 minutes, then 
rinse in soft cold water to prevent rotting. 

To Make Clothes White. — Put a teaspoonful of peroxide of hydrogen 
in the soaking water. This bleaches the linen and is harmless. It distributes 
the bluing evenly and makes the cloth clean and white. 

Protecting Colored Lawns. — To keep away the fading effect of a bright 
sun, hang your fine colored lawns inside of long nightgowns. They dry as 
well and do not fade. 

To Prevent Wash Goods From Fading. — Delicately colored wash goods 
should be washed in cold water with a good soap. Salt added to the last 
rinsing water will set the color. 

Add some common or Epsom salts to the wash water and this will keep 
colored clothes from fading. Try this the next time you wash colored dresses. 

To Prevent Colors From Running. — Stir a tablespoonful of black pepper 
into the first suds. This prevents the color from running. 

To Keep Comforts Clean. — Bind the edges with a deep band of swiss. 
The colored comforts will not need to be cleaned so often if this is done. This 
swiss may be easily removed for washing if basted on. 

To Wash Feathers. — Transfer the feathers to a cheesecloth case about the 
same size as the pillow. This can be done by leaving a slit of six inches in the 
case and joining to a similar slit made in a corner of the pillow. Fasten these 
openings together and shake the feathers into the case. Sew the opening, then 
wash and rinse thoroughly. Hang in the sun until dried. Leave the feathers 
in cheesecloth cases and put back in ticking. In this way feathers are not 
lost. 

Assistance for Laundering. — Sprinkle the clothes several hours before 
ironing in order to make this work much easier. 

When taking the clothes off the line be sure to fold them. This saves 
time in handling them again. 

Add a small teaspoonful of kerosene, benzine or turpentine to the washing 
water to whiten the clothes. 

Soak the clothes over night to make them wash easier. It is a good plan 
to have ammonia or borax in the water while soaking. 

Do not have the water too hot when washing colored clothes, nor the 
iron too hot for ironing. These assist in keeping the color from running. 



LAUNDRY HELPS 

Excellent Stain Removers. 
Gasoline, naphtha or benzine, Oxalic acid 

£ arbona ' Benzol, ' 

Kerosene, T „ 

Turpentine, J aVe " e Water > 

Chloroform, q u ' 

Olive Oil, v ' 

Lard, Vinegar, • 

Alcohol, Lemon jmcc, 

French chalk, Hydrogen pero X1 de. 



323 



CLOTHING— HOW TO FIX OVER AND RENEW 

Aprons. 

Make ten or twelve inch hems on short work aprons. They can be turned 
over and later the hem can be turned down and inside out. 

Neat little aprons can be made from the back of a man's old shirt. 

Buttons. 

Always use heavy thread and you won't have so much trouble Trom the 
buttons coming off after being sewed on. No. 30 size is good. 

Excellent Way to Work Buttonholes. — Mark the place, then put two rows 
of machine stitching, then cut between the two stitchings ; it will then be 
much easier to work the hole as this prevents all fraying of the material. 
How to Save or Fix Over or Renew. 

To Prevent Buttonholes from Tearing Out of Children's Garments. — Take 
the garment when new and bind the buttonholes with a piece of tape the color 
of garment, turning square at corners and felling out at both sides. This 
makes a strong, neat job. It makes the coats' last twice as long. However an 
old coat may be mended the same way. 

To Keep Buttons On. — First take several stitches on opposite side of 
cloth from button. Then sew through and through occasionally wrapping 
thread around underneath button. Knot on cloth underneath button. 

Dye. 

Silk Waists. — Wash first then add the desired color to the rinse water. 
Red or blue ink is very good. 

Red Colored Blouses. — If they are fading add a few drops of red ink to the 
rinsing water and it will give a good flesh color. 

Hats. 

Derby. — For cracked derby hold lighted match inside under the crack. 
This will soften the texture and a stiff brush will eliminate the fault. 

Straw Hats. — Oxalic acid and water, made into a solution and applied 
with a toothbrush cleans very good. 

To Renovate Straw Hats. — Natural colored soiled straw hats can be 
cleaned by sponging thoroughly with a weak solution of tartaric acid in water, 
then rinse in fresh water. Fasten hat by the rim to a board by means of pins, 
so it will keep its shape in drying. 

324 



CLOTHING— HOW TO FIX OVER 325 

Sponge with a solution of Sodium hyposulphite 10 parts, glycerine 5 parts, 
alcohol 10 parts, water 75 parts. Lay aside in a damp place for 24 hours and 
then apply citric acid 2 parts, alcohol 10 parts, water 90 parts. Press with 
a moderately hot iron, after stiffening with weak gum water. 

Gloves. 

How to Mend a Rip in a Kid Glove. — Button over each side of the rip 
putting the needle through the holes made by the original stitching and tak- 
ing two stitches over both edges at each end of the rip. Then sew firmly over 
the cords formed by button-holing, catching the edges together. When merely 
sewed together, over and over, the appearance is not nearly so attractive. 

Recoloring Old Kid Gloves. — Put a few drops of black ink in olive oil 
to darken the worn 'spots in kid gloves. 

Taking Care of Kid Gloves When Wet. — When wet with rain rub your kid 
gloves carefully with a damp cloth. All danger will be thus removed from 
the kid becoming spotted or rough. Do this while they are still on the hands. 

Silk Gloves, Long. — When worn out in the fingers cut oft' at the wrist and 
baste tightly around the bottom. Sew a thin strap or strip of cloth about them 
like a stirrup. Slip on long stockings of cotton underneath and draw on the 
silk glove tops. The strap holds them below the shoe tops and they look like 
new silk hose. 

Shoes. 

Brown Shoes to Make Black. — Carefully remove the dust, take part of a 
raw potato and rub hard all over the shoe, next apply a heavy coat of black- 
ing. After this drys, blacken the leather again and rub thoroughly, using 
a fresh piece of potato. 

More Wear From Shoes. — Have them polished at once while new. It 
waterproofs them and keeps from staining. 

Moving Shoe Tongues. — Make couple slits near top and slip shoestrings 
in before tying. This keeps them in place. 

To Restore Patent Leather. — Rub well with a rag soaked in olive oil and 
milk; polish with a cloth which is soft and dry. 

Equal parts of linseed oil and cream makes a fine polish for patent leather. 

Rubbers. 
Doubling the Life of a Pair of Rubbers. — Pack into the heels of new rub- 
bers a half-inch layer of soft, crushed tissue paper. This will double the life 
of a pair of rubbers. This soft cushion retards wear and adjusts itself to the 
worn shoe heel, giving the rubber a perfect fit. 

Stockings. 
Black Stockings. — They will keep color fine if vinegar is added to the rins- 
ins: water. 



326 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Holes in Stockings. — When mending large holes in stockings or merino 
underwear, fasten a piece of net over the rent and darn through it. 

Keep Stockings Mated. — Sew each pair of sox at top with a few stitches 
of thread. Use different colors for each pair of socks. 

Shine on Clothes, to Remove. — Rub with the "nap," using a sheet of fine 
sandpaper. 

Ties. 

Save old neckties to make pillow tops. Cut the ends and underparts in 
small pieces and make the top. Work seams with floss. If you have only a 
few ties, make pincushions. 

Rompers. 

To Preserve Elastic in Child's Rompers. — After fitting the elastic above 
the child's knee, put a hook on one end and an eye on the other, run through 
bottom of rompers, press the hook down and leave it fastened until they are 
ready to launder. At this time remove the elastic from rompers. By keeping a 
bodkin threaded with tape to which an eye has been attached you can 
easily run the elastic into the rompers by fastening the hook on the elastic 
to the eye on the tape, then run it through rompers. 

Skirts. 

In making an underskirt to match your house dress use an old white under- 
skirt with worn trimmings removed ; bind top with a bias fold of dress goods 
through which is run the drawstring. Make a ruffle of dress material from 
length scraps or trim with two bias bands. You will be rewarded with a 
neat costume. 

To Hang a Skirt. — Open table leaves and insert piece of chalk. Close so 
it is held tightly. Fit skirt around hips and waist. Then stand against chalk 
and turn slowly. Measure to the bottom from the chalk ring for the desired 
length. 

To Get Straight Hems on Linen. — Lather a strip where you desire to cut. 
Then pull out a thread. It will come easily. 

Shirts. 

To Double the Life of Shirts. — Sew a small piece of muslin inside the 
shirt to shoulder seam and collar-band. In this way you protect men's 
negligee shirts from the wear of stiff collars against the collar bone. 

To Make Old Shirts New. — Take a shirt broken in the front near the band 
or worn around neckband. First rip neckband off to shoulder seam, rip 
sleeves out around front of shirt to side seams, then rip down side seams. 
Loosen both fronts, lay right side on left, about three inches down on goods, 
cut out shape around neck ; reverse ; lay left on right side and cut out the same. 
Shirts made over this way last at least one-half longer and look as good as 
new. 



CLOTHING— HOW TO FIX OVER 327 

To Make Work Shirts. — Take a shirt with a worn neckband and sew a 
soft collar to it. These will make good working shirts. Where the soft 
collars on shirts are worn, cut off the collar and make the neckband so stiff 
collar can be worn. 

Faded by Washing. — When men's and boys' shirts become faded by 
washing and wear in the sun, add some blue ink to the rinse water; this 
will make them look much better without any expense. 

Old Shirts. — Your husband's old shirts can be used to make nightshirts 
for the boys. When the cuffs and neckbands are worn out cut off cuffs at 
top of opening; hem the sleeves; use cloth cut from bottom of sleeves to 
fit around neck, and face over on the right side a piece about iy 2 inches 
wide. Stitch top and bottom of facing, making a substantial and neat finish. 
Put on buttons and make buttonholes through facing. Sew up the bottom of 
front. This makes a good, neat, summer nightshirt with little work and no 
expense. 

Rag Bag. 

One made from strong mosquito netting is best. You can see very quickly 
just where the pieces of cloth you wish is located. 

Silks. 

To Renew. — Unravel and put in a tub, after covering with cold water 
let them remain an hour. Dip them up and down without wringing. Hang 
up to drain, and iron while quite damp. 

Sunbonnets. 

Children's. — Slit hole in back and drop braid through, or slit top and tie 
hair ribbon through it. 

Velvet. 

To Revive Black Velvet. — Hold the article, pile side up, over the steam of 
nearly boiling water to which has been added a little ammonia; brush well 
and press on the under side. 

Another Method. — Strain velvet lightly over a board and sponge with 
pure gin. Sponge should be damp, not wet ; then hold near a flame, the wrong 
side to the heat, until pile begins to rise, press wrong side with a warm flat- 
iron. 

Expensive hat flowers have been made to look like new after season's 
wear by washing them in gasoline with a small hand brush. 

Unironed Clothes. 

If ironing of dampened clothes cannot be finished, place in bottom of re- 
frigerator to prevent mildewing. 



328 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

To Fireproof Goods. 

Wash flimsy goods in a solution of alum, ammonia or borax. Linen or 
cotton are the best goods to treat this way. 

To Keep Colors Bright. 

A piece of alum in the starch will keep colors very bright and clear. 

To Keep Furs. 

Wrap furs in common newspapers. Printers' ink keeps moths and flies 
away. 

A little colocynth pulp (or bitter apple) or spice (cloves, pimento, etc.), 
may be wrapped in muslin and placed among the furs ; or the furs may be 
washed in very weak solution of corrosive sublimate in warm water of 10 
to 15 grains to the pint, and then carefully dried. They should be kept 
in a clean, dry place, but taken out occasionally, well beaten, exposed to the 
air, and returned. 

Another Method. — Sprinkle spirits of turpentine over furs or woolen 
goods, also drawers or boxes in which they are kept. The unpleasant odor 
will soon evaporate on exposure to air. 

Tailors often put bits of camphor, the size of a nutmeg, in papers on the 
shelves of their shops and as they brush their cloths every 2, 3 or 4 months, 
this keeps them free from moths. A tallow candle placed in each muff when 
laid away, will prevent moths. Snuff or pepper is also good. 

To Remove Greases From Cloth: 
Hang in hot, steamy bathroom or over a steaming pan of water. 

Mending. 

With several little ones to wash, iron and patch for, a button off this or 
that piece, slips the memory till time to put the clothing on. To remedy this 
make a drawer, divided in three parts, one for buttons, one for needles already 
threaded, and one for tape, spools of thread, etc. Children will enjoy placing 
these articles and threading needles which they can place on a square of 
cardboard. It takes but a few seconds to sew on a button as you iron, and 
saves much worry later. 

Dress Form. 

Cut heavy sacking or canvas equal in length to your waist. Cut out a 
round board or hoop. Stretch canvas across a hoop, or tack to the edges of 
board. You can fill this with cork, hay or pine needles. Sew up arm holes and 
neck. Place one of your old corsets about it to get the right form at waist 
and hips and you can easily fit your own waists and skirts. For length, set 
on a round post or stand. 



INKS, PASTES, CEMENTS, ETC. 



Cements. 

Take one teaspoonful of caustic soda, 3 of gypsum, 3 of rosin and 5 of 
water. Boil them together stirring continuously. Apply quickly, as it hardens 
fast. This will cement brass and glass together very strong. 

For glass or iron cement take 1 teaspoonful of yellow wax, 5 teaspoonfuls 
of rosin, and while stirring in a water bath add 1 teaspoonful of Venetian 
red. Let it cool while being stirred. 

Calsomine, Home-made. — Take common whiting and add any color de- 
sired. Mix into a cream, then add plenty of thick flour paste. One coat is 
enough. A pailful should be allowed for a room. This is a cheap home-made 
remedy for dirty walls and ceilings. 

Glass or Iron. — Mix ]/ 2 ounce clean white sand, y^ ounce powdered chalk, 
1 ounce of Portland cement and in order to make a salvy liquid add sodium 
silicate. 

Iron Cracks, to Mend. — Mix fine wood ashes, clay and salt with water to 
keep pasty. This is fine for cracks in stoves or iron. 

Iron, to Mend. — Mix white of egg and finely sifted lime to make a thin 
paste. Dry iron about crack and apply. This makes a very firm connection. 

Ink. 

Black Ink. — Put 2 quarts of soft water in an earthen jar. Add 1 ounce gum 
arabic, 1 ounce brown sugar, 1 ounce pure copperas, 3 ounces powdered nut- 
galls. Shake this up well. Shake again before using. 

Blue Ink. — Add 1 ounce of Prussian blue to a pint of water. If a darker 
color is desired add more of the blue. If a lighter color is desired add more 
water. 

Marking Ink, for Clothes. — Mix thoroughly the following ingredients for 
a very lasting ink; 1 ounce gum arabic, 3 ounces nitrate of silver, V/2 cups of 
strong ammonia and 4 tablespoonfuls of archil to give the permanent color. 

Permanent Ink. — Mix bluestone with water and add lump of sugar. Dis- 
solve thoroughly. 

Pastes. 

Ever-mend Mucilage. — Cut the gummed sap from plum and cherry trees, 
put in bottle and cover with water. Cork bottle and set away to dissolve. This 
is good for most purposes. 

329 



330 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Iron Paste for Leaks. — Iron borings or sifted filings mixed with vinegar 
are good for use in broken pipes. Dry the pipe and apply the paste. Let it 
dry thoroughly before using pipe. 

Paste for Wallpapering. — Add 1 pint of vinegar to 1 gallon of water and 
let come to a boil, then sift flour into cold water and stir to make the right 
thickness. The addition of the vinegar makes it especially good. 

Paste for Leaks in Wood. — Mix 1 cup salt, 1 cup wax and l l / 2 cups lard. 
Melt slowly over fire then stir in 1 cup powdered charcoal. Fill cracks or 
holes in pails or troughs and they will hold water indefinitely. 

Miscellaneous. 

Glue. — A fine glue that is fireproof can be made by putting 1 tablespoonful 
of gelatin in 8 tablespoonfuls of linseed oil and letting it stand over night, 
Melt it by heating the oil slowly over the fire. Quickly add 2 tablespoonfuls 
of quicklime and stir together. Spread out thinly on plates to dry. For future 
use melt in a glue pot and apply at once. 

Mix together 1 teaspoonful of kaolin, 2 teaspoonfuls of slaked lime and 3 
teaspoonfuls of white chalk. Just before using this mixture an equal amount 
of water glass should be added. It makes a fine glue. 

Mix 1 tablespoonful each of starch and flour, pour on a little boiling 
water and continue to stir the boiling material until thick enough for your pur- 
pose. 

Dissolve 1 ounce of pure gum arabic in a half cup of boiling water. Add 
1 tablespoonful of pure glycerine. Let settle and pour off for using. 

Toothpaste. — Place a little peroxide of hydrogen on the toothbrush and 
sprinkle baking soda on it. This whitens the teeth and cleans the gums. 

Whitewash. — Mix a pint of varnish with a bucket of whitewash. This is 
fine for outside work. 



RECIPES FOR POLISHING METALS, 
WOODWORK, ETC. 

Buttons, Polishing. — If pearl buttons look blurred first rub them with a 
little olive oil, then apply some nail powder as for finger nails, letting it dry 
on for a few seconds. Polish with a buffer or a piece of chamois skin. 

Brass Beds. — Do not wash. Rub with chamois slightly dampened. 

Brass, to Polish. — Mix vinegar and salt in a slight paste. 

Brass Goods, to Clean Discolored. — Polish with mixture of common salt 
and sour milk. This gives a very brilliant and cleansing polish. 

Glass. — After washing, polish with salt. 

Dip a moistened linen rag in powdered indigo and rub over glass, then wipe 
off with a dry cloth. 

Mix 1 pint of vinegar, 1 ounce butter of antimony, 1 ounce alcohol and 1 
pint of oil. Shake well and polish with soft cloth. 

Use a bar of castile soap, 2 ounces borax, 2 ounces washing soda ; boil in 
y 2 gallon water till dissolved, then add 2 gallons of tepid water and boil 10 
minutes. Add ]/ 2 pint of alcohol when cold. Rub on with clean piece of flan- 
nel. 

Polish for Any Article With Shiny Surface. — Mix thoroughly V/z ounces 
calcined magnesia, y pound cream of tartar and 2 pounds good whiting. Apply 
with a chamois skin or extremely soft, pliant cloth dampened slightly with 
alcohol, and a beautiful luster is developed. Brisk rubbing is preferable. 

Leather Cream. — Mix together with hands or ladle y 2 cup castor oil, y 2 
cup glycerine, 1 cup yellow vaseline and %y> pounds of lard. Knead well and 
add lamp black if that color is preferred. 

Patent Leather Dressing. — Melt 6 level teaspoonfuls of wax in %. cup of 
olive oil and heat, slowly stirring it. Remove from stove to window and cool 
slightly before adding 6 teaspoonfuls of turpentine oil. For the odor a couple 
teaspoonfuls oil of lavendar will be good. 

Harness Oil. — Mix 1 tablespoonful of lamp black with 1 ounce turpentine 
and 5 ounces neatsfoot oil. Then stir in 2 ounces of melted petrolatum. Shake 
well. This is fine for waterproofing and softening harness or leather goods. 

Linoleum. — Give old linoleum a good coat of paint, white usually, then fol- 
low with desired color of floor varnish. If it is grained it appears like hard- 
wood. 

Varnishing several times a year will protect the linoleum and keep it like 
new. It also cleans easier. 

Linoleum Substitute. — Cover floor evenly with well matched strips of 
heavy building paper. Dissolve 1 pound of sizing in 2 quarts of water. Spread 

331 



332 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

evenly and let dry. Give 1 or 2 coats of thin paint, any color you desire, and 
varnish once. This will make a fine and lasting floor covering. 

Waxing Linoleum. — Many people believe that waxing linoleum with some 
good floor wax will do it more good than varnishing. It makes it soft and pli- 
able and it cleans easy like hardwood. It should be polished with a clean 
cloth after waxing. 

Paint, to Keep From Peeling From Iron. — Wash the iron thoroughly, paint 
and give a coat of boiling linseed oil. Paint will never crack. 

Plated or Nickeled Parts, to Clean. — Mix 2 ounces of turpentine, 8 ounces 
powdered chalk, 1 ounce alcohol and 2 teaspoonfuls of ammonia. Apply with 
a sponge. Let it dry, and polish with a rag. 

Silverplate Polish. — Powder 1 teaspoonful of alum and mix with 2 tea- 
spoonfuls each of cream of tartar and finely sifted chalk. Put in tight fitting 
box with top. Dampen soft cloth and rub silver lightly with the powder. Wash 
in clear water. 

Silver, to Clean — Electrolysis Action. — Add 1 teaspoonful each of sal 
soda and salt to each quart of water. Place small aluminum dish in pan con- 
taining the above solution. Pile in the silverware on top of the aluminum 
utensil. All the pieces must come in contact with one another or the 
aluminum. Leave in water for several minutes, take out and wash in 
clear water. Polish with clean, dry, soft cloth. The silver must be cov- 
ered with the solution. 

Stoves. — Gas Stoves, Polish For. — Take a felt eraser and moisten with 
kerosene. Wash stove, then dry. Now rub well with eraser. 

Blacking Stoves. — Sandpaper rough surfaces before blacking. This 
gives a brilliant shine. 

To Care for Stoves. — Rub with linseed oil before putting away in the 
spring. A little turpentine and polish will keep the stoves from rusting. 

To Polish Stove. — Use an old piece of velvet to polish the stove, applying 
the blacking with it. The blacking will not burn off quickly when applied this 
way. 

If rusty, wash the stove with vinegar then dissolve stove polish in gasoline 
and rub in with a brush or rag. Don't do this on a hot or warm stove. Polish 
the stove when cold. 

Stove Polish, Liquid. — Take 1 cup copperas, y 2 cup bone black and y^ 
cup powdered graphite. Add water and make light paste. Apply and rub on 
with brush. 

Woodwork. — Cracks in Floor, to Fill. — Soak y 2 pound of old newspapers 
for three days in 3 quarts of soft water. Then add 1 quart of wheat flour and 
1 tablespoonful of alum. Stir and boil on stove until quite thick. Let it cool 
and fill up any cracks with it, after first brushing them out. The paste hardens 
like wood and will take paint well. 

Floor Dressing. — Mix thoroughly 1 pint each of turpentine, linseed oil 
and vinegar. Apply with soft cloth or new oil mop. 



RECIPES FOR POLISHING METALS, ETC. 333 

Dustless Polish for Floors. — Mix a quart of linseed oil and a pint of 
strong vinegar. Apply with a rag or mop. 

Painted Floors, to Polish. — Mix 1 cup linseed oil, y 2 cup vinegar and 2 
tablespoonfuls of turpentine. Apply to floors with a woolen cloth. 

Polish for Floors, Linoleum, Etc. — Pour into bowl 1 cup each of turpentine 
linseed oil and kerosene. Rub in well with a soft cloth or floor mop. It makes 
it look new. 

Polish for Varnished Work. — Make a polish of y 2 quart of vinegar, 1 ounce 
butter of antimony, 1 ounce alcohol and y 2 quart of oil. Shake well before 
using. 

Polish for Mahogany Wood. — Fill 1 pint of proof alcohol with enough cut 
gum shellac to make it thick and add 2 ounces of Venice turpentine. This 
polish will last for a. long time. 

Mahogany Polish. — Boiled linseed oil is the best thing for mahogany. Rub 
with soft flannel cloth. This oil hardens and will fill and smooth off cracks. A 
little vinegar can be added to the oil to give a bright, dry finish. 

Scratches on Mahogany. — Rub a little vaseline on mahogany scratches and 
wipe well with a soft cloth. This is very good and highly satisfactory. 

Stains on Mahogany. — Combine and stir together 3 ounces spirits of 
salts and y 2 ounce lemon salts. Put few drops on the spot and rub with a 
soft cloth. 

Oak, Cherry or Walnut Polish. — First dust with a dampened cloth, wash 
\with white soapsuds and warm water. Dry and polish with a few drops of 
kerosene on soft cloth. 

Oak, Dull Finish Polish. — Wash carefully with a piece of old flannel wrung 
dry out of tepid water. 

Varnished or Enameled Furniture. — Never should be washed with water. 
Soft cloths and different polishes can be used. 

Furniture Polish. — Mix cold coffee and linseed oil. 

Willow Work, Polish or Cleaner. — Wash with warm soapsuds containing 
borax. Set in sun to dry. 

Woodwork or Paper, to Clean With Ease. — Stand on table upon which 
is placed a stool or chair to hold the pail. This saves lots of moving and 
stooping. 

Woodwork, to Protect. — Heat 2 quarts of water and add \y> cups of gum 
lac and 2 cups sodium borate. Dissolve them by stirring and add ?>y 2 cups of 
powdered asbestos. Mix well together and if too thick add more hot water. 
Apply with a brush to woodwork around hot places. Several coats can be ap- 
plied. 

Kitchen Floor. — When made of wood, scour the kitchen floor with a good 
cleaner and when dried rub in linseed oil with a cloth or felt mop.. In this 
way the floor will need a scrubbing and oiling but once in two or three weeks. 

Zinc. — Mix thoroughly 1 teaspoonful oxalate of potash, 2 teaspoonfuls of 
sal ammonia and 1 cup of vinegar. Apply with brush to get a good bronze 
tint. 



MISCELLANEOUS 



Umbrella Top, to Make. — Tear off old top, press out one whole section and 
measure off sufficient sections on piece of new satin, then sew together on ma- 
chine. Place over ribs of umbrella and sew firmly at the end of each rib and 
about the top. 

Net Curtains, to Hold. — Stitch strips of braid across where they are tied 
and it will keep them from tearing. 

For Crocheting. — Put end of. hook in a cork when through using. 

Rugs, Braided. — Cut rags and sew together. Roll several strips to- 
gether and braid in three strands. Start to sew edges together, beginning 
in a circle with a strong cord. Many patterns can be made. 

Hospital Bag. — Take unbleached muslin and sew in plenty of pockets for 
rolls, cotton, tape, salves, etc. Keep supplied all the time. 

Wall Pockets. — Take heavy piece of Denim cloth and make a hem at 
top into which you can. insert a rod of steel or wood. Put a brass eyelet at 
each end directly under the rod and it will hang neatly. 

Bed Covers. — Newspapers placed just on top of mattress under the sheets 
or blankets and also over the top covers between a comfort and blanket will 
keep all the heat of the body about the sleeper, and prevent it from circulating 
and radiating off through the bed clothes. This is extra good for cold 
nights. 

Bandages. — Boil and wash old tablecloths thoroughly. Iron them and cut 
in long strips 3 inches wide. Place in hot oven a few minutes to thoroughly 
sterilize. Then roll them up and place in tightly covered boxes. 

To Make Adjustable Lace Curtains. — Tie securely to the rod and fix pulley 
over top of window bringing it out to the side and down the casing. This en- 
ables it to be raised in the day time and lowered at night for ventilation. 

Washable Comforters. — Sew the cotton in mosquito netting and tack 
down as usual. Slip this into quilt cover and when the cover needs washing 
slit one side and remove. 

Rose Beads. — Gather plenty of rose leaves and mix in some of the blos- 
soms. They must be ground very fine in a food grinder. Add several teaspoon- 
fuls of olive oil and grind several times more. Roll on bread board with rolling- 
pin. Cut into sections with a thimble or smooth band ring. Roll around in 
palm of the hand. String on a hat pin and let harden several days. Take off 
and place in olive oil for 2 hours. They can then be strung as desired on a 
strong cord. 

Rose Jar. — Gather large quantities of rose petals. Put in a jar for about 
ten days, stirring it every morning. Add half an ounce of ground cloves, all- 

334 



MISCELLANEOUS 335 

spice and stick cinnamon. Keep mixing and stirring for several weeks. Put 
in jars and it will last for years. 

Paper Beads. — Let children cut ten-inch strips of colored paper one inch 
wide and tapering to a point. Start the wide end over a hat pin and after a 
couple rolls apply mucilage, complete winding and apply mucilage. Leave on 
hat pin to dry. Run on a string. 

Plants, to Keep Stems From Breaking. — Push the head of a clothes pin 
into the earth beside the plant and rest the stem in the crotch. This will not 
bruise it. 

Keeping Ferns. — Cut out the brown parts as they appear. 

Dampen with cold tea each day. 

Keep plant in window where the sun shines part of the day. 

Keep where there is good ventilation. 

Keeping Flowers. — Rub baking soda in water with flowers. 

Dip while fresh in gum water. This keeps shape and color. 

For faded flowers dip stems in hot water half way up and lay them aside 
until cool. Cut off the heated part of the stems and place flowers in clear, cold 
water. 

Roses, to Cut and Plant. — For long-stemmed flowers cut the slip for re- 
planting with only two or three new small eyes or buds upon it. Cut down all 
new shoots from the roots as the more the woody growth, the shorter the 
stems of the flowers. If foliage is desired let all the sprouts develop. 

To Start Bulbs. — Cover bottom of bucket or box with several inches of 
dirt. Put bulbs in pot and set in bucket or box. Cover all about four inches 
deep. In six weeks examine them. If the bulbs have grown about two inches 
take the pots from the box. Keep in dark for two days and the plants will 
then grow fine for winter flowers. 

Umbrella Stand. — Place sponge in bottom of stand. It will protect jar 
as well as make it easy to take out the water. 

To Prevent Soft Rubber. — Place in dry talcum powder after drying ar- 
ticles. f 

To Preserve Wooden Posts. — Soak ends of posts in limewater, then dry 
and paint with diluted sulphuric acid. This is even better than tar posts. 

Broken Phonograph Records. — Take good mending cement and use tooth- 
pick to apply to broken edges. If not in more than two pieces it will work 
fine. Press the edges tightly together and leave on flat surface until 
thoroughly dry. 

To Fix Cistern. — Melt paraffin and apply to sides with a large brush. Ap- 
ply to holes or leaks thickly. 

To Mend Cans That Are Not Heated. — First dry thoroughly in sun or 
oven, then pour melted paraffin into container and whirl around until cool. 
This will make a water-tight can. 

To Prevent Mold. — Whitewash with carbolic acid added will keep mold 
away. 

Glass, to Cut. — Take the glass to cut and place it under water in a tub. 



336 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

Simply cut the glass with shears or scissors as you would paper, making it 
the size you wish. 

Binding for Magazines. — Paste and sew through and through strips of solid 
cloth as long as the magazine and wide enough to lap over the back an inch. 
Do this with each magazine, then sew them together by means of strong cord 
through the edge of the cloth. This prevents the loss of a number you most 
desire. 

For Hiccoughs. — Hold breath and take nine swallows of water. 

Hold breath and simply try to swallow three times. 

For bad cases scare the person by some startling method. 

To Save Rubber Heels. — Cut piece of an old rubber sole to fit the heel of a 
new rubber. Glue in tightly. This will save the heels and practically double 
the wear of the rubber. 

Money-making Hints for Girls. — Pillows filled with pine needles sell 
fine in cities. They may also be filled with balsam. 

Clover blossoms or milkweed down are fine as pillow fillers. 

Hopvine blossoms or sweet clover sprays are often used. 

All of these can be put in some heavy material and are fine for porch 
chairs, campers or floor pillows. 

Blackboard, to Make. — Take clear, wide board and smooth well with sand- 
paper. To a mixture of gum shellac dissolved in alcohol, add enough charcoal 
to blacken well. Apply to board and test with chalk. If too smooth, add more 
alcohol. This is fine for children in the country to practice on and saves lots 
of paper. 

Furnace or Coal Dust. — Cut squares of cheese-cloth slightly larger than 
the registers. Lift up registers and tack over hole or underneath the register. 
The cloth will not hold out the heat, but will catch the dust and dirt particles 
coming up the flue. 

Canary Birds. — If their bowels are loose drop a rusty nail in the drinking 
water. It will soon disappear. 

Put white cloth over the cage. If red specks are seen on it in the morning 
the bird has lice. Treat accordingly. 

Keep bird out of draft while it is molting. 

Tie a piece of fat bacon covered with red pepper in the canary's cage and 
the bird will keep in excellent condition. 

Bird Food. — One ounce maw seed, 6 parts canary seed, 2 ounces millet 
seed and 2 ounces of rape seed make a fine mixed feed for birds. 

Ventilation. — Several methods are practical. Placing a six- or eight- 
inch board outside and at the bottom of the window will permit the window to 
be raised without allowing the rain to enter. Cloths can be hung across to pre- 
vent splashing. 

Porch Swings, to Keep From Squeaking. — Before hanging up, slip old 
glove finger over the hook. This will be good for any article that is hung by a 
hook. 

Egg-eating Chickens. — Put a couple of tablespoonfuls of lime in a pail 



MISCELLANEOUS 337 

of drinking water and feed meat scraps. This will keep chickens from 
eating their eggs. 

Bristles, to Stiffen. — Clean and dip in equal mixture of milk and water. 
Shake and let dry. 

Finger Nails. — Before working in dirt fill beneath finger nails with soap. 
This will keep out sand and dirt. Washing will dissolve soap and keep nails 
in good condition. 

Water Pipes, to Keep From Freezing. — Bind newspapers about pipes in 
exposed places. Paper is a non-conductor and fine to keep pipes from 
freezing. 

For Water Spilled in Bed. — Rub hot flatiron over it a few times. It will 
dry very quickly. 

Hot Water Bag. — To keep from cracking rub with glycerine or olive 
oil frequently. 

Preventing Curling of Rug Corners. — Put a piece of whalebone or corset 
stay under the corner and sew it on. This will keep them from curling. 

Button Stiff Collar. — Use a buttonhook the same as you would button a 
shoe. 

Damp-proof Matches. — Dip tips in hot paraffin and let cool. These will 
not be hurt and will stand all wetting. 

To Separate Stamps. — Place between papers and apply hot iron. 

To Make Black Tracing Paper. — Mix smooth lamp black and sweet oil. 
Paint over paper and dry it. Place under the pattern and trace with smooth- 
pointed stick. 

To Frost Glasses. — Rub with a solution of Epsom salts. 

To Deaden Watch Ticking. — Place glass tumbler over watch on chair. 

Fountain Pen. — Writing with a fountain pen on a pad of paper or placing 
sheet on blotters causes a much smoother stroke and more steady flow of 
ink than when using a single sheet of paper on a hard surface. 

Uses of Old Paint. — Paint flower pots, posts, tin boxes, plow handles, etc. 

To Sharpen Scissors. — Cut on a steel needle. This sharpens them nicely. 

Oil Lamps. — To prevent smoking soak wicks in vinegar and dry them. 
Boil burners in strong soapsuds, wash and dry them. This makes a fine light. 

If top comes off melt alum and fill inside of brass ring. Set back on 
lamp evenly. It will harden and not pull off. Oil will not dissolve it. 

To Fill Metal Lamp. — Find out the weight when full of oil, then place on 
scales each time for weighing. This will make the work easier and keep from 
overflowing. , 

Tack Puller. — A good, strong spoon can be used for pulling out tacks, by 
simply running it under the carpet close up underneath the tack. The 
round surface enables it to give good pressure beneath for pushing out the 
tack. The carpet is not likely to be torn. 

Holes in Aluminum. — Place hole over end of a flatiron and tap the hole 
gently with a hammer. This brings the edges together and stops the leak. 
It is a quick remedy. 



338 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

How to Save Hot Water Bottle. — Hot water bottles made of rubber will 
last at least twice as long by pouring half a cup of cold water in the bottle 
before turning in the hot water. It is better to use a small funnel in the 
neck when filling. This will save you dollars. 

To Mend China. — Into a solution of gum arabic put some plaster of Paris 
and stir until it is the consistency of cream. Apply this to the broken dishes 
with a brush, press together and let stand for three days. The dish will not 
show where it was mended nor will it break again in the same place. 

To Renew Old Oil Paintings. — Dilute a small quantity of deutoxide with 
about 7 times its weight of water. Touch up the blackened lights of old 
pictures and their original hue will be instantly renewed. Then wash 
the part thus restored with a clean sponge and water. 

Buffer Cover. — When chamois on nail buffer wears out cut a strip from 
the wrist of an old kid glove and cover buffer with it. 

To Preserve Plaster of Paris Articles. — Put a coat of paint or enamel over 
it, and it will keep well. 

How to Hang the Flag. — Take a flag from the staff and sew it strongly 
so it will not fray. Put an eyelet at each end and tie tape through them to 
fasten on nails driven into porch. Tape can be sewed on flag with which to 
tie it to the nails. 

That Run-Down Spring. — Put a button-hook over the metal end of the 
window shade spring. Then wind the spring, using the button-hook as a 
wrench. You can do this quickly. 

To Mend Grain Sacks. — Make a thick boiled paste of flour and water as 
for starching clothes. Cover the patch with this, place over tear and iron dry. 
They will last longer than when sewed on. 

Making Quilts. — Make regular cotton quilt with plain white cover, then 
merely insert the whole of it into the regular colored cover. Outside cover can 
be washed as needed. 

Feathers, to Put Into New Cases. — Shake well and then soak the old pil- 
low and feathers before slitting the case. Then wring out and shake dry. 
Shake to one end before rolling back the case, place clean case up close to 
bunch of wet feathers. Roll them into a new case and sew up. Hang in 
wind and sun to thoroughly dry. 

Window Blinds, to Make. — Get a roll of oatmeal paper, any color you 
desire. Cut strips of the required length for the window and sew a half inch 
hem all the way around. Double over at the end to prevent tearing and tack 
to the roller. This is an economical way to make new blinds. 

Warmer, for Cold Riding. — Mix one cup or eight ounces of sodium ace- 
tate with 72 ounces or two good full quarts of sodium hyposulphate and place 
in a three or four-quart earthen jar or bottle. Cork tightly and heat slowly 
until it is a liquid. This will hold and expel heat half a day and can be 
renewed from time to time by shaking. 

Dogs, to Make Them Loosen Hold. — When a dog, especially a bulldog, 
bites an animal or person it is often hard to tear them loose. Light a match 



MISCELLANEOUS 339 

and hold it to the nose of the dog. It will let go almost instantly. Burned 
sulphur is fine, too, but not handy at times. 

Diamonds, How to Tell. — Always hold a diamond over a black spot. If 
one clear point is seen the diamond is real, but if it is blurred or shows several 
points it is an imitation or is imperfect. 

Fire, a Good Extinguisher. — Put one-half cup of baking soda in four gal- 
lons of water and dissolve. Keep this solution in a small covered tub or barrel 
and it will be found very efficient in putting out small fires. It will go twenty- 
five times as far as pure water. The baking soda forms a gas that will not 
permit flames to develop. 

To Keep Children's Hands Warm in Winter. — Just before children start 
for school give them each smooth stones which can be easily held in the hand, 
that have been nicely heated in the oven. They can hold these in their 
gloves or mittens and keep from frosting their fingers in very cold weather. 

Baby Help. — Nail a strip of smooth wood or strong cord across the bot- 
tom of the screen door on the inside and just high enough for the baby to 
reach and stand by. During hot months he will enjoy standing there and can 
get plenty of air. This will take his attention, enabling the mother to work 
without fear of his being injured. 

To Keep Baby Warm. — Lay cheesecloth over the crib at night and the 
draft will be shut off ; this still gives the babe plenty of fresh air. Of course, 
the child should be covered warmly. 

Baby's Blanket. — Make a band of white rubber and put around cart over 
the blanket to keep it from blowing up or away. 

To Warm Baby's Bottle While Autoing. — Carry common fruit jar or can 
and draw hot water from radiator of car. Slip baby's milk bottle into the hot 
water and leave until warm. 

For Baby's High Chair. — Sew tape on strong cloth and tie to tray of high 
chair. Make pocket in which to slip baby's feet or tack cloth onto the chair 
seat, leaving enough room for babe to sit in chair with feet hanging down. 
This will keep him from falling out under the tray. 

To Keep Covers on Babe. — Make baby's nightgown a foot longer than he, 
and pin down at the side and bottom with big blanket pins. He can roll over 
but can't kick the covers off. 

Cutting Child's Hair. — Bring thin cloth around forehead over the face 
and clip the hair over the cloth. It can be kept from getting into the eyes, 
nose and mouth. Putting a bowl over the head and cutting around the edge 
will get a straight edge. 

Baby, to Train. — A nicely padded stool in which the baby can be set com- 
fortably, will be found very good in training the baby to have regular bowel 
movements. Padding around the edges made of thick quilting pad, and if 
desired covered with rubber will enable the baby to sit still for some time 
without becoming restless. Oil cloth coverings can be used equally as well 
as rubber. 

Measles. — As the eyes are easily affected by light during and shortly 



340 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 

after measles, small auto goggles with dark glass can be used to good advan- 
tage in protecting the children's eyes. Fresh air is a good healer and when 
able to go out place the glasses over the eyes. This enables children to 
avoid having to be shut in a dark room which is not very cheering. 

Rugs That Fray Out. — Take some good oil cloth of color similar to the 
rug and bind over the ends. This not only keeps the rugs from unravelling 
but prevents them from curling up. 

Rugs, to Prevent Curling. — Suit boxes can be cut in strips, placed under- 
neath the edges of the rugs and carpets and overcast with some strong thread. 
The rugs can be used for a much longer time this way. 

Old Carpets, Making Over. — Clean thoroughly an old rag or other kind 
of carpet, then stretch on the floor. First give it two good coats of paper- 
hanger's paste or flour paste that you can easily make. Let it dry, then give 
it one or two coats of good paint, the color you prefer. You will find this 
practical and inexpensive. This covering can be washed or dusted with an 
oil mop and it will be good and warm. 



HANDY DEVICES FOR THE FARM 




Butchering Rig Used by One Man. 




I 



Tff "p^ 



Derrick for Handling a Carcass. 
341 



342 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 





Cow Out to Graze. 



Drive two stakes a considerable distance apart. 
Stretch a rope or wire between them on which a ring 
has been placed. Fasten securely to the stakes and tie 
the rope from the halter to the ring. 



Milking Stool Which Holds 
Pail. 




Self-feeder for 
Horses. 

Make the above of 
inch boards large 
enough to hold but 
one feed. Make the 
bottom with suffi- 
cient slant so all the 
feed is sure to enter 
the trough. This 
keeps a horse from 
bolting his food. 





a — | e-». 


1 




































~A- 






2> ^ * 


p 






tfita 





Fine Cow Stall. 

(1) Shows the rack about 2 l / 2 feet high. The cow 
can thrust her nose through the slats up to her eyes. 
The rack is V/i feet wide at the bottom. (2) Shows 
the feed box which may be entered from the barn floor. 

(3) Shows the haltei strap at a comfortable length. 

(4) Shows the gutter which is about 8 inches lower than 
the stall floor. 



HANDY DEVICES FOR THE FARM 



343 





Type of Swinging Stanchion. 
Used in many modern barns. 



The Chain Tie. 
Have plenty of slack in cross chain. 
The chain in the middle goes around 
the animal's neck and fastens with 
a snap. The cross chain is fastened 
to iron rods. Very convenient and 
inexpensive. 




A Handy Wrench. 
Remove the wood- 
en handle from a 
monkey wrench. 
Weld the stock of 
an old bit to the 
wrench. This is a 
great saver of time. 




A Rail Anvil. 



344 THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 




An Effective Wagon Jack. 
(1) Is the only part of this jack 
which is not wood, except the iron 
bolts at (2) and (3). Press down 
on the handle, and this will lift the 
axle. 




One-Man Sack Holder. 
The upright 3 by 4 should be three 
feet high. The arms should be about 
iy 2 feet in length. This is well worth 
while. 




«w 



Jack for Heavy Log Wagons. 

Two-inch plank should be used for this. The support 
through the level would be a bolt %-inch in thickness. 
Fasten a strong rope to the base and over the handle as 
shown above. When in use hook the rope in another 
notch. This holds it in position. 



HANDY DEVICES FOR THE FARM 



345 




Hog Trough Nicely Partitioned. 




Excellent Bag Holder. 




Barbed Wire Tightener. 
Take an inch board and cut it into 
shape above shown. Make a small 
hole to hold the face of a hammer. 
It is usually best to insert a bolt 
through the board near the head of 
the hammer. This is done to pre- 
vent splitting. Use leather straps to 
fasten the hammer. Sharp brads 
should stick out half an inch. Use 
good hardwood. 



346 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE— ENGINEERING 




A Shaving Horse. 
Make a bench 16 to 20 feet in length. Make the 
clamp (1) of hard, heavy wood that you feel sure will 
not split. Number (4) is an extention of (1). The 
treadle (5) is held in position by a peg. Place the 
wood to be clamped under edge of (1), and push 
backward upon treadle. The drawing knife can be 
used better this way than when a vise is used. 



*«o ft v v v ^ 






ft 




Tree Remover. 



HANDY DEVICES FOR THE FARM 



-347 




¥1 


: j 


| : | 



An Efficient Gate, Easily Opened. 



1 


: :/v.\:-.ft 




r 




C3 • 


_ _:e 



■ — i — i — i — ». 


v. v. v.4:i 


X -, 


:\\\:.3k 


=p 


\v.\v. :i 


' T 



Heavy Door Locks. 




/ty 



Position of an Efficient Post Puller. 
Make a notch in one end of a four board and nail on cross 
pieces to strengthen. Follow about cut carefully. 



MEMORANDA 



INDEX 
ENGINEERING 



• A 

PAGE, 

Account, Cash '. 187 

Acid on Clothes, To Neutralize 302 

Action of Paints 230 

Adjusting Mixture of Fuel and Air 12 

Advantages of Concrete Construction . . 41 

Advantages of Hot Air Furnace 98 

Aggregate, Dirt in 45 

Aggregate, Natural Deposits of 43 

Aggregate, Screening the 45 

Aggregate, Washing the 46 

Aggregate, Composition of 43 

Alleyway, Concrete 80 

Aluminum, How to Clean 298 

Aluminum, How to Mend Holes in.... 337 

Ammonia, Facts About 302 

Anti-Skid Device for Tires 40 

Ants 308 

Anvil, A Rail 343 

Apple Tree Borers or Worms 313 

Apples, Rotting, How to Take Care of . . 275 

Apples, How to Keep 275 

Application of Stucco 93 

Ash Wood, Imitation of 238 

Associations, Cooperative Live Stock 

Shipping 196 

Auto Hints 40 

Automobile Brakes 37 

Automobile, Care of Magneto and 

Battery 36 

Automobile, Clutch of 35 

Automobile, Effective Self-Starter 40 

Automobile Engine 35 

Automobile Engine, Carburetor of.. 35 

Automobile, Gears and Driving 

Mechanism 36 

Automobile Lamps 39 

Automobile, How to Keep Clean 37 

Automobile Radiators 37 

Automobile Tires 37 

Automobiles 35 

Automobiles, Celluloid Fronts for 37 

Automobiles in Cold Weather, Care of.. 38 

Automobiles, Lubrication of 37 

Automobiles, Steering Gear of 37 

Automatic Siphons, Dimensions of 142 

Automatic Siphon in Septic Tanks 141 

Autopneumatic Water System 122 

349 



B 

PAGE. 

Baby, Blanket 339 

Baby, Bottle, How to Keep Warm While 

Autoing 339 

Baby, Help 339 

Baby's High Chair 339 

Baby, How to Keep Covers on 339 

Baby, How to Keep Warm 339 

Baby, How to Train 339 

Baby, Nails, How to Keep Clean 298 

Back Filling in Drainage 159 

Back-Firing 12, 31 

Bacon, Sugar Cured 282 

Bag Holder 345 

Bag, Hospital 334 

Baking Powder Cane, How to Use 293 

Baking Powder, How to Make 295 

Baking Soda 293 

Ball Worm 313 

Bandages 334 

Bank Account 187 

Barbed Wire Tightener 345 

Barn, Combination 209 

Barn, Dairy 203 

Barn Floors. Concrete 81 

Barn Floors, Dairy Concrete, How to 

Build 79 

Barn, Horse 209 

Barn, Sheep 216 

Barns, Cattle 208 

Basement Steps, Concrete Construction 

of 90 

Baskets, Crocheted, How to Stiffen 319 

Bathtubs, Enamel, How to Clean 298 

Bathtubs, How to Clean 317 

Battery, Care of in Automobiles 36 

Baume Scale 17 

Beans 289 

Beans, How to Dry 289 

Bed Covers, Eiderdown, How to Clean.. 299 

Bed Bugs 308 

Bed Covers, Newspapers as 334 

Bedspreads, Keeping Fresh 318 

Bed Springs, How to Clean 298 

Bedsteads, How to Clean 298 

Beef, Corned 280 

Beef, Cuts of 276 

Beef, Dried 281 

Beef, Fresh, How to Can 287 

Beef, Frying, How to Keep 287 

Beefsteak, How to Keep 287 



350 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 



FAGE. 

Bees 308 

Benefits of Drainage 149 

Bills, Payable, Accounts .187 

Bills, Receivable, Accounts 187 

Birchwood, Imitation of 237 

Bird Food • 336 

Birds, Robbing of Fruit • • 308 

Birthday Cakes, Lettering of 288 

Biscuits, How to Make Crisp 288 

Black Ink 329 

Blackboard Paints 237 

Blackboard, How to Make 336 

Blackened Cooking Dishes, How to 

Clean 298 

Blacking Stoves 332 

Blacking, How to Soften 293 

Blankets, Cleansing 318 

Blasting Rock 161 

Bleaching Cotton 322 

Block and Tackle 262 

Blocks, Concrete vs. Solid Concrete 68 

Blocks, Information for Ordering 271 

Blocks, Lifting Force 265 

Blood Stains, How to Remove 305 

Blue Dye 316 

Blue Ink 329 

Bluing Stain, How to Remove 306 

Boiler, Hot Water 103 

Boilers, Galvanized, Standard Sizes of... 135 

Bologna Sausage 284 

Book Bugs 309 

Books, Finger Marks on, How to 

Remove 303 

Bottle, Broken Cork in, How to Remove. 303 

Bottles, How to Clean 300 

Brake Test for Gasoline Engines 21 

Brake Test, Operation of 21 

Brakes, Automobile 37 

Brass, How to Polish 331 

Bread Box, How to Keep Fresh and 

Moist 296 

Bread, Brown, What to Bake in 2S8 

Bread, Good, How to Make 288 

Bread, How to Cool 288 

Bread, How to Cut Hot 288 

Bread, Milk, How to Keep Moist 288 

Brick, Old, Methods of Applying Stucco 

on 93 

Bristles, How to Stiffen 337 

Broken Stone for Concrete 44 

Brooder 222 

Broom Covers 293 

Broom, How to Make Last Longer 294 

Brooms 293 

Brooms, How to Keep 296 

Brown Bread, What to Bake in 288 

Brushes, Paint, Care of 229 

Buffer Cover 368 

Bugs, Alum or Salt for 309 

Bugs and Pests 308 

Bugs, How to Keep from Wall Paper.. 309 
Bugs, How to Rid Greens ct 309 



PAGE. 

Buildings, Farm 203 

Buildings, Old Farm, How to Make New. 94 

Bulbs, How to Start 335 

Burned Milk, How to Remove Taste 

from 287 

Burners, Gas, How to Clean 298 

Burners, Lamp, How to Clean 298, 300 

Business Methods 178 

Butchering Rig 341 

Butter and Sugar, How to Cream 272 

Butter, How to Keep : 273 

Butter, How to Keep Firm 272 

Butter, How to Test Purity of 272 

Butter Paddles 272 

Butter, Rancid, How to Sweeten 273 

Buttons, How to Keep on 324 

Buttons, Polishing 331 

Buttonholes, How to Prevent from Tear- 
ing Out 324 

Buttonholes, How to Work 324 

C 

Cabbage, How to Keep 289 

Cabbage Maggot 313 

Cabbage Worms 314 

Cake •• 288 

Cake, How to Flavor 289 

Cake Making 288 

'Cakes, Birthday, Lettering of 288 

Cakes, How to Remove from Pans 289 

Calcimine 234 

Calcimine, Home Made 329 

Calculating Engine Horse Power 20 

Calculating Quantities of Concrete 61, 62 

Cam-Shaft Rattle 32 

Can Rubbers, How to Remove 294 

Canal, Losses in Irrigation 168 

Canary Birds 336 

Cans, Not Heated, How to Mend 335 

Capacity of Main Drain 154 

Capacity of Pumps 126 

Carbon, How to Remove from Cylinders. 40 

Carburetor, Automobile Engine 35 

Carburetion 10 

Carcass, How to Cool 277 

Care of Machinery 24 

Carpet Bugs 309 

Carpets, How to Clean 298 

Carpets, Old, How to Make Over 340 

Carrots, A Substitute for Pumpkin 2S9 

Cash Account 87 

Cash on Hand, Accounts 187 

Casings for Sausage 284 

Caterpillars 314 

Cattle Barns 208 

Cattle Statement 194 

Cauliflower. How to Keep 2S9 

Celery Blight 289 

Celery Flavoring 290 

Cellar. Root 227 

Celluloid Fronts for Automobiles 37 

Cement, Portland 42 



ENGINEERING INDEX 



351 



PAGE. 

Cement, Portland, for Stucco 92 

Cement, Portland, How Packed 42 

Cement, Portland, Storing 43 

Cements 329 

Center Pieces, How to Launder 31S 

Chain Tie 343 

Chamois Skin, How to Wash 320 

Cheese, How to Keep Fresh 286 

Cherries, How to Remove Stones 276 

Cherry Polish 333 

Chewing Gum, How to Remove from 

Clothing 303 

Chicken House, Removable 222 

Chickens, How to Stop from Eating 

Eggs 336 

Chiffon, How to Wash 318 

Children's Hands, How to Keep Warm 

in Winter .* 339 

Child's Hair, How to Cut 339 

Chimney of Hot Air Furnace 102 

China, How to Mend 338 

China, How to Pack 293 

Chocolate, How to Improve 293 

Chocolate Stains, How to Remove .317 

Cippoletti Weir 172 

Cisterns, Concrete, Construction of 88 

Cisterns, Concrete, Materials for 89 

Cisterns, How to Fix 335 

Cisterns, Water Supply from 107 

Cleaning Fluids 299 

Cleansing Fluid 316 

Cloth, How to Remove Grease from 328 

Clothes, Bluing for 316 

Clothes, How to Make White.. 322 

Clothes, How to Neutralize Acid on 302 

Clothes, How to Remove Shine from... 326 

Clothes, Mending of 328 

Clothes, Soaking 315 

Clothes, Sprinkling 321 

Clothes, Unironed, How to Prevent 

Mildewing 327 

Clothing, How to Fix Over and Renew.. 324 

Clutch of Automobile 35 

Coal Dust, How to Prevent 338 

Coat Collars, How to Clean ..299 

Cocoa, How to Improve 293 

Cocoanut, How to Freshen 292 

Coffee 273 

Coffee, How to Economize in Using 273 

Coffee, How to Insure Good 273 

Coffee, How to Keep Fresh 273 

Coffee, How to Make Clear 273 

Coffee Percolator 273 

Coffee Pots, How to Sweeten 273 

Coffee Stains, How to Remove . .306, 317 

Cold Riding, How to Keep Warm 338 

Collar on Coat, How to Clean 299 

Collar Stiff, How to Button 337 

Coloring, Concrete ; , .58, 94 

Coloring, Concrete, Table for 59 

Colors, How to Keep Bright 328 

Colors, How to Prevent from Running.. 322 
Combination Barn 209 



PAGE. 

Combs, How to Clean 299 

Combustion 14 

Combustion and Explosion 14 

Combustion, Gas Engine 13 

Combustion, Principles of 5 

Comforters, How to Keep Clean »322 

Comforters, Washable 334 

Companies, Insurance 196 

Composition of Crude Petroleum 15 

Compression Stroke 6 

Concrete 41 

Concrete, Advantages of 41 

Concrete Alleyway 80 

Concrete Basement Steps, Construction 

of 90 

Concrete Blocks vs. Solid Concrete 6S 

Concrete Cisterns, Construction of 88 

Concrete Cisterns, Materials Required 

for 89 

Concrete, Coloring of 58, 94 

Concrete, Coloring Table for 59 

Concrete Corner End Posts 86 

Concrete Corner Posts, Dimensions of.. 87 
Concrete Corner Posts, Materials for.. 87 

Concrete Feedway 81 

Concrete Fence Posts 82, 83 

Concrete Floors in Horse Barn 81 

Concrete, Forms for 62 

Concrete Foundations, Piers and Walls . . 68 

Concrete Hardness, Test for 60 

Concrete, Hints for Mixing 65 

Concrete, How to Prevent from Sticking. 63 

Concrete Line Posts, Dimensions of 87 

Concrete Line Posts, Materials for 87 

Concrete Manger 80 

Concrete, Materials for 41 

Concrete Mixing 46 

Concrete Mixing by Machine 57 

Concrete Mixtures, Recommended, Table 

for 55 

Concrete, One-Piece Method 97 

Concrete, Placing 57 

Concrete Posts for Gateway 86 

Concrete Rectangular Hog Wallow 73 

Concrete, Reinforced 60 

Concrete, Showing Proportions of Ma- 
terials 69 

Concrete, Slab Method 97 

Concrete Slop and Hog Troughs 72 

Concrete, Some Mistakes About 41 

Concrete Stall Floors 80 

Concrete, Steel Forms for 63 

Concrete Steps and Stairways 89 

Concrete Steps, Forms for 90 

Concrete Structures, Calculating Cost and 

Quantities 61 

Concrete, Surface Area 71 

Concrete, Surface Finish 94 

Concrete, Table for Basement Work 69 

Concrete, Table of Materials for 66 

Concrete, Use in Cow Barn 79 

Concrete Water Tanks and Troughs, 
Construction of 72 



352 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 



PAGE. 

Concrete, Water Tight 44 

Concrete Work, Cost of 60 

Concreting in Cold Weather 59 

Conservation of Irrigation Water 168 

Constituents of Stucco 92 

Construction of Concrete Floors 63 

Construction of Rope 240 

Construction of Septic Tanks 140 

Contamination of Underground Water 

Supplies 109 

Contamination of Water Supply, Dan- 
gers of • • • 106 

Conveniences, Modern, Installation of.. 105 
Cooking Dishes, Blackened, How to 

Clean 298 

Cooperative Associations 195 

Cooperative Creamery 196 

Cooperative Elevators 196 

Cooperative Live Stock Shipping 

Associations 196 

Cooperative Organizations, Kinds of 196 

Cooperative Scheme 195 

Cooperative Stores 196 

Corduroy, White, How to Wash 320 

Cork, Broken in Bottle, How to Remove. 303 

Corks, How to Take from Bottles 274 

Corn, How to Keep 290 

Corn Moth 312 

Corned Beef 280 

Corner End Posts 86 

Corset Stay, Use for Scraping Pans 293 

Cost of Concrete, Calculating 61, 62 

Cost of Concrete Work 60 

Cost Table, Crop 193 

Cotton, Bleaching 322 

Cotton Goods, Shrinking 322 

Covers for Bed, Eiderdown, How to 

Clean 299 

Covers, How to Keep on Baby 339 

Cow Barns, Use of Concrete in 79 

Cow Stall 342 

Cow, Tying Out to Graze 342 

Cracked Parts of Gas Engine 34 

Cracks in Floor, How to Fill 332 

Cranberries, How to Keep 275 

Crank Case Explosions 32 

Cream Vats, Concrete 75 

Creamery, Cooperative 196 

Crepe de Chine, How to Wash 319 

Crickets 309 

Crochet Hook, How to Keep 334 

Crop Cost Table 193 

Crude Petroleum, Composition of 15 

Cucumber Bugs 309 

Cucumbers 290 

Curing Meats 279 

Curing Meats, Vessels for 279 

Currants, How to Dry 275 

Curtains, How to Clean 299 

Curtains, How to Dry 315 

Curtains, How to Hang Properly 320 

Curtains, How to Wash 319 

Cut Flowers, How to Keep 294 



PAGE. 

Cutting Child's Hair 339 

Cutworms 314 

Cylinder, Deep Pounding in 31 

Cylinder, Mishring in 30 

Cylinder, Overheated, What to Do With.. 31 
Cylinder, Overheating in 31 

Cylinders, How to Remove Carbon from. 40 

D 
Dairy Barn 203 

Dairy Barn Floors, Concrete, How to 

Build 79 

Dairy Barn, Lighting 205 

Dairy Barn, Ventilation 205 

Deep Pounding in Cylinder 31 

Dents in Furniture, How to Remove. .. .303 

Deposits of Aggregate, Natural 43 

Derby, Cracked, How to Mend 324 

Derrick for Butchering...." 341 

Design, Double Chamber Septic Tank 

System 138 

Design for Granary 224 

Design for Permanent Hog House 209 

Design of Power House 24 

Details of a Gas Engine 10 

Diamonds, How to Tell 339 

Dimensions for Automatic Siphons 142 

Dimensions of Septic Tanks 139 

Dirt in the Aggregate 45 

Dishes, Blackened, How to Clean 298 

Dishes, Marks on, How to Remove 303 

Disposal of Sewage 136 

Distilled Water 108 

Ditch, Construction of 156 

Ditch Linings for Protection Against 

Seepage 168 

Dogs, How to Make Them Loosen Hold. 338 

Doors, Painted, How to Clean 301 

Double Bowline Knot 248 

Double Chamber Septic Tank System . . 138 

Doughnuts 289 

Drainage 149 

Drainage as Speculation 150 

Drainage, Benefits of 149 

Drainage, Buying Hints 150 

Drainage, Cost and Profit 161 

Drainage, How to Determine Value of.. 162 

Drainage System, How to Stake Out 151 

Drainage of Root Cellar . .227 

Drainage Owners, Hints 150 

Drainage Problem Outlined 150 

Drainage Projects 161 

Drainage System, Grades 151 

Drainage System, Location 156 

Drainage System, Outlet 157 

Drains, Open 161 

Drawbar Horse Power 20 

Dress Form 328 

Dried Beef 281 

Driving Mechanism of Automobile 36 

Dry-Cured Pork 282 

Drying Clothes 320 

Drying Curtains 315 



ENGINEERING INDEX 



353 



PAGE. 

Dust Mop, How to Clean 299 

Dustless dVlop, How to Make 295 

Duties of the Elements of * Gas Engine. 5 

Dye Colors, Liquid 316 

Dye Red Colored Blouses 324 

Dye, Silk Waists 324 

Dye Stains, How to Remove 306 

Dyes, How to Fix 316 

Dyeing Children!' s Hose 315 

Dyeing Goods 315 

E 

Economy Test 23 

Egg- Eating Chickens, How to Cure 336 

Egg Shells, How to Use 273 

Egg Stain, How to Remove 303 

Eggs 273 

Eggs, How to Beat 273 

Eggs, How to Keep Whites from Break- 
ing in Poaching 274 

Eggs, How to Make Whites Go Twice 

as Far 274 

Eggs, How to Keep Yolks Fresh 274 

Eggs, How to Preserve for Winter 274 

Eggs, How to Swallow Whole 274 

Eggs, How to Test 273, 296 

Eggs, Whites of, Quick Way to Beat. .. .274 
Eiderdown Bedcovers, How to Clean.. 299 

Elements of a Gas Engine 4 

Elevators, Cooperative 196 

Emergency Anti-Skid Device for Tires.. 40 

Enamel Formulae 239 

Enamel, Old, How to Take Off 303 

Enamel Varnishes 239 

Engine and Machine, Relation of 26 

Engine, Automobile 35 

Engine, Cooling of 15 

Engine Horse Power, Calculating of.... 20 

Engine, Need for Testing 21 

Engine Slows Down and Stops 32 

Engine, Three Port 8 

Engine Vibration, Excessive 32 

Engines, Cam Shaft, Rattle in 32 

Engines, Crank Case Explosions 32 

Engines, Gas 1 

Engines, Gasoline, Brake Test for 21 

Engines, Two-Cycle, Types of 8 

Enterprises, Farm, A Study of Each 193 

Equipment of Power House 25 

Eraser, Ink 306 

Exhaust Stroke 8 

Expansion Stroke 8 

Explosives and Combustion 14 

Eye Glasses, How to Keep Clear 300 

F 

Fabrics, Colored, How to Launder 318 

Fading, How to Prevent Wash Goods 

from 322 

Farm Buildings 203 

Farm Buildings, Location of 198 



FAGE. 

B^arm, Designing the Large Units 19s 

Farm Enterprises, Study of Each 193 

Farm Gas Engines l 

Farm Map 187 

Farm, Mechanical Power on l 

Farm Power House or Shop 23 

Farm Produce Record lyi 

Farm Profit, How to Figure 192 

Farm, Sample Inventory. . •. its 

Farm Site 197 

Farm, Water Supply for 106 

Farmer's Loop 251 

Farming as a Business 176 

Farmstead, Details of the Design 200 

Farmsteads, Proportions 198 

Farrowing Pens 214 

Feather Pillows, How to Clean 299 

Feathers, How to Put Into New Cases.. 338 
Feathers, How to Remove Oil Spots on.. 305 

Feathers, How to Wash 322 

Feeding and Watering Devices for Poul- 
try Houses 222 

Feeding Racks for Sheeo Barns 216 

Feeding Records 190 

Feedway, The Concrete si 

Feet Head of Water and Equivalent 

Pressure in Tank 120 

Fence Posts, Concrete 82, 83 

Ferns, How to Keep 335 

Fertilizer 294 

Fiber, Rope, Sources of 242 

Field Losses in Irrigation 190 

Figs, How to Dry 275 

Final Disposal System for Sewage 143 

Finger Marks, How to Remove 303 

Finger Nails, How to Keep Clean 337 

Fire, A Good Extinguisher 339 

Fireproof Paint 237 

Fireless Dress 315 

Fish 1...296 

Flag, How to Hang 33s 

Flannels, How to Wash .319, 320 

Flatirons, How to Retain Heat in 315 

Flatirons, Sticky, How to Clean 299 

^J eas 309 

r lies 309 

Flies, How to Keeo Away 310 

Flies, How to Kill 309 

Floor, Concrete, Construction of 63 

Floor Dressing 332 

Floor, Kitchen 333 

Floor of Stall, Concrete 80 

Floors. Concrete, Dairy Barn. How to 

Build 79 

Floors, Concrete, Horse Barn si 

Floors, Dustless Polish for 333 

Floors, How to Clean 299 

Floors, Polish for 333 

Flow, Determination of Water in 

Irrigation 175 

Flower Bugs 309 

Flowers, Cut. How to Keep 294 

Flowers, How to Keep 335 



354 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 



PAGE. 

Fluid, Fine .Washing 317 

Fluids for Cleaning 299 

Fly Mixture for Cattle 310 

Fly Poison 310 

Fly Time, Simple Rules for 310 

Fly Catcher 309 

Food Covers, How to Make 295 

Foods, How to Cool 292 

Foods if Too Salty 292 

Forms of Concrete 62 

Forms, Materials for 63 

Forms of Concrete, Hints for 62 

Forms, Steel, for Concrete 63 

Foundations, Concrete for 68 

Fountain Pen, How to Use 337 

Freezing, How to Prevent in Root Cellar. 227 

Fresh Beef, How to Can 287 

Fresh Meat, How to Keep 27S, 287 

Fried Cakes 289 

Fruit, Drying 274 

Fruit Juice, How to Tell If It Will Jell.. 275 

Fruit Stains, How to Remove 306, 317 

Fruits 274 

Fruits, Canning of 274 

Fruits, Canning Without Sugar 274 

Fruits, Preserving with Dry Sugars 274 

Fruits, Sun, Process of Canning 274 

Frying Beef, How to Keep 287 

Fudge, How to Chill 292 

Fuel and Air, Adjusting Mixture of 12 

Fuel and Air, Rich Mixture, Effect of.. 13 

Fuel for Smoking Meats 284 

Fuel, Kinds of 15 

Fuel Saver 293,294 

Furnace, Hot Air, Advantages of 98 

Furnace, Hot Air, Construction of 

■Chimney 102 

Furnace, Hot Air, Installation of 100 

Furnace, Hot Air, Ordering 101 

Furnace, Hot Air, Pipe 100 

Furnace, Location of 103 

Furnace or Coal Dust, How to Prevent.. 336 

Furniture Dents, How to Remove 303 

Furniture, Enameled or Varnished 333 

Furniture, How to Clean 299 

Furniture, How to Remove Spots from.. 305 

Furniture Polish 333 

Furniture, Spots from Heat. How to 

Remove 305 

Furniture, Upholstered, To Clean 302 

Furrine. Table of 94 

Furs. How to 'Clean 299 

Furs, How to Keep 328 

G 

Galvanized Boilers, Standard Sizes of 135 

Garbage Can, How to Clean 299 

Garbage Can, How to Keep from Tipping 

Over 294 

Gas Burners, How to Clean 298 

Gas Engine, Back-Firing 31 

Gas Engine, Care of 34 



PAGE. 

Gas Engine Combustion 13 

Gas Engine, Cracked Parts of 34 

Gas Engine, Details of 10 

Gas Engine, Duties of the Elements of.. 5 

Gas Engine, Elements of 4 

Gas Engine, Hard to Start 28 

Gas Engine, How to Start 34 

Gas Engine, How to Stop 34 

Gas Engine, Irregular Knocking in 32 

Gas Engine, Irregular Running of 31 

Gas Engine, Loss of Power 29 

Gas Engine, Miscellaneous Upkeep of.. 33 

Gas Engine, Operation of 6 

Gas Engine, Power Rating 19 

Gas Engine, Regular Knocking and 

Pounding in 32 

Gas Engines, Simple Principles of 5 

Gas Engine, Speed Variation 33 

Gas Engine, Starting Troubles 28 

Gas Engine, Sudden Stopping of 30 

Gas Engine Troubles 27 

Gas Engine Troubles Analyzed 28 

Gas Engine, Wheezing and Scraping 

Sound in 33 

Gas Engine, Worn Parts of 33 

Gas Engines, Farm 1 

Gas Engines, Source of Power in 15 

Gas Engines, Uses on the Farm 3 

Gasoline Engines, Brake Test for 21 

Gate on Wheel 347 

Gateway Post 86 

Gears for Automobile 36 

Gelatin, How to Test 291 

Girl, Handy Articles for the Newlv 

Wedded 297 

Glass, How to Cement 329 

Glass, How to Clean 299 

Glass, How to Cut 335 

Glass, How to Polish 331 

Glasses, Eye, To Keep Clear 300 

Glasses, How to Frost 337 

Gloves 325 

Gloves, Kid, How to Clean 300 

Glasses, How to Frost 337 

Gloves 325 

Gloves, Kid, How to Clean 300 

Gloves, White, To Wash 320 

Gluei 330 

Glues 239 

Glues, Formulas for 239 

Gnats 310 

Goods, How to Fireproof 328 

Goods, Lacquered, How to Clean 300 

Goods, White, Stains in. How to Remove. 303 

Grades, Drainage System 151 

Gradinsr, Ditch 156 

Grain Sacks, How to Mend 338 

Grain Weevil 309 

Graining with Paint 237 

Granary 222 

Granary, Construction of 225 

Granary Design 224 

Granary Site .....224 



ENGINEERING INDEX 



355 



PAGE. 

Grapes, How to Dry 275 

Grass Stains, How to Remove 306, 317 

Gravity System, Water 117 

Grease Eraser 303 

Grease, How to Prevent from Spreading. 303 

Grease, How to Remove 303 

Grease on Stove, How to Remove 303 

Grease Spots, How to Remove 317 

Grease Stains, How to Remove 306 

Grease Trap of Sewer System 147 

Grease, Wagon, How to Remove 318 

Ground Water, Removal 149 

Gum, Chewing, How to Remove from 
Clothing 303 

K 

Half Hitch 247, 252 

Ham, How to Keep 287 

Hamburg Steak 2S4 

Hams and Bacon, Sugar Cured .282 

Hams, Sugar Cured 282 

Handkerchiefs, How to Wash When 

Traveling 319 

Hands, Soiled, How to Clean 300 

Handy Drier, How to Make 295 

Handy Hooks, How to Make 295 

Hardness, Concrete, Test for 60 

Harness Hitch 248 

Harness Oil 331 

Hats 324 

Hats, Panama, How to Clean 300 

Head Cheese 282 

Heat Stains on Polished Wood, How to 

Remove 306 

Heating Plants 9S 

Heating Systems, Operation of 103 

Heating Systems Other Than Hot Air.. 102 

Heating Systems, Steam 104 

Heating Systems, Steam, Advantages of.. 108 
Heating Systems, Steam, Installation of.. 104 
Heating Systems, Vapor, Advantages of. 102 
Heating Value of Petroleum Products.. 19 

Heavy Articles, How to Dry 320 

Heels, Rubber, How to Save 336 

Hiccoughs, What to Do for 336 

Hints on Mixing Concrete 65 

Hitches, Rope 252 

Hog House 209 

Hog House, Permanent 209 

Hog House, Temporary or Removable. . . .214 

Hog Trough 345 

Hog Troughs, Concrete 72 

Hog Wallow, Rectangular Concrete 73 

Holes in Aluminum 337 

Horse Barn 209 

Horse Barn Floors, Concrete 81 

Horse Power 20 

Horse Power, Amount Belting Will 

Transmit 25 

Horse Power, Best Way to Get 20 

Horse Power, Engine, Calculating of.... 20 
Horse Power Indicator 20 



PAGE 

Horse Power Shafts for Given Diameter 

and Speed 25 

Hose, Dyeing 315 

Hospital Bag 334 

Hot Air Furnace, Advantages of 98 

Hot Air Furnace, Disadvantages of.... 98 

Hot Air Furnace, Installation of 100 

Hot Air Furnace, Ordering 101 

Hot Air Pipe 100 

Hot Pan Holders, How to Make 295 

Hot Water Bag, How to Keep from 

Cracking 337 

Hot Water Boiler 103 

Hot Water Boiler, How to Save 338 

Hot Water Systems, Advantages of 102 

Hot Water System, Disadvantages of 102 

House, Poultry 218 

Household Record 190, 191 . 

Hydraulic Ram, Installation and 

Operation 129 

Hydraulic Rams, Sizes of 131 

I 

Iceless Ice Box, How to Make 295 

Icing 289 

Icing, How to Keep from Cracking 294 

Ignition 6 

Ignition, Timing of 14 

Income and Profit 191 

Income, Definition of 191 

Indicator, Horse Power 20 

Indigo Stains, How to Remove 317 

Inflation of Tires, Incorrect 38 

Ink Eraser 306 

Ink, How to Remove 306 

Ink Remover 307 

Ink, Removing from Linen 307 

Ink Stains, How to Remove 307 

Inks 329 

Insects on Plants 311 

Installation of Hot Air Furnace 100 

Insurance Companies 196 

Intake by Suction Stroke 6 

Intermittent Sand Filtration Disposal of 

Sewage 144 

Inventory, Sample, Farm 178 

Iodine Stain, How to Remove 306 

Irish Lace, How to Dry 320 

Iron, Cracks in, How to Mend 329 

Iron, How to Cement 329 

Iron Pots 292 

Iron Rust, How to Remove 318 

Ironing 321 

Ironing Board Cover, How to Hold in 

Place 321 

Ironing Days, Save Time 315 

Ironing, How to Dampen for Hasty.... 321 

Ironing Starched Pieces 321 

Irregular Running of Gas Engine 31 

Irrigation 164 

Irrigation Acts of U. S. Government 164 

Irrigation Reclamation Act 164 



356 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 



PAGE. 

Irrigation Water Rights 164 

Irrigation Water, Sources of 166 

Irrigation Water Values 165 

J 

Jack for Heavy Log Wagons 344 

Jack for Wagon 344 

Jelly Making 275 

K 

Kerosene, How to Make Odorless 295 

Kettles, How to Keep from Becoming 

Black 294 

Kettles, How to Keep from Burning. .. .294 

Kid Gloves, How to Clean 300 

Kid Gloves, How to Mend a Rip 325 

Kid Gloves, Recoloring 325 

Kid Gloves, When Wet, How to Take 

Care of 325 

King Beans, How to Dry 289 

Kitchen Floor 333 

Kitchen Helps 272 

Knives, How to Clean 300 

Knocking and Pounding in Gas Engine.. 32 
Knocking, Irregular, in Gas Engine 32 

L 

Labels, How to Remove 295 

Labor Record 188, 189 

Lace Articles, How to Launder 319 

Lace, Black, How to Clean.... 298 

Lace Curtains, How to Make Adjustable. 334 

Lace, How to Make Yellow 316 

Lace Veil, How to Renew 319 

Lacquered Goods, How to Clean 300 

Lamp Black, How to Remove 317 

Lamp Burners, How to Clean 29S, 300 

Lamp Chimneys, How to Toughen 294 

Lamp Metal, How to Fill 337 

Lamp Wicks 294 

Lamps, Automobile 39 

Lamps, Oil, How to Prevent Smoking of .337 

Lard, Frying Out 283 

Lard, How to Get All Possible 287 

Laterals, Placing of 156 

Lath, Stucco 93 

Laundering, Assistance for 322 

Laundry Helps 315 

Lawns, Colored, How to Protect 322 

Leak in Boiler, Quick Remedy for 315 

Leather, Cream for 331 

Leather, How to Clean Soiled 317 

Leather Stains on Stockings, How to 

Remove 307 

Lemons, How to Keep 275 

Lettuce, How to Dry 290 

Lettuce, How to Keep Fresh 290 

Lice 311 

Lice, Apple Tree 311 



PAGE. 

Lice, Chicken 311 

Lice, Head 311 

Lighting of Dairy Barn 205 

Lightning Protection 228 

Lime, How to Remove from Bottles 303 

Line Shaft, Machines 26 

Linen, Removing Ink Stains from 307 

Linen Skirts, How to Get Straight 

Hem on 326 

Linen, When Bleaching 321 

Lining for Seepage, Cost of 168 

Linoleum, How to Renew 331 

Linoleum, Waxing 332 

Linoleums, Polish for .333 

Liquid Dye Colors ' 316 

Live Stock Shipping Associations 196 

Loads for Rope, Maximum and Safe 268 

Loops Between Rope Ends 248 

Lubrication of Automobiles 37 

Lye, Use of 322 

M 

Machine Concrete Mixing 37 

Machine Oil Stain, How to Remove n? 

Machinery, Care of 24 

Machines and Line Shaft au 

Magazines, Binding for 336 

Magneto, Care of, in Automobile 36 

Mahogany Polish 333 

Mahogany Wood, Imitation of 238 

Mangers, Concrete SO, 81 

Manure Pits, Concrete 75 

Map, Farm 187 

Maple Wood, Imitation of 238 

Marble, HoW to Clean 301 

Marbles, How to Use in Cooking 292 

Marking Ink for Clothes 329 

Marks, Finger, How to Remove ;303 

Marks, Match, How to Remove 303 

Marks on Dishes, How to Remove 303 

Mason Jar Lids, How to Renew 293 

Match Marks, How to Remove 303 

Matches, How to Make Damp Proof... 337 

Matches, How to Save 293 

Materials for Concrete 41 

Materials for Forms 63 

Materials for Plumbing, Quality of 106 

Materials of Which to Make Silos 205 

Matting, How to Clean 301 

Matting, How to Keep Color 321 

Mattress, How to Clean 301 

Measurement of Water in Irrigation 171 

Measurement, Unit of .171 

Meat 296 

Meat, Cooking to Keep 279 

Meat, Packing in Snow to Keep 278 

Meats • • 276 

Meats, Curing 279 

Meats, Curing in Brine 280 

Meats, Dry Curing 280 

Meats on the Farm 277 



ENGINEERING INDEX 



35? 



PAGE. 

Meats, Preservatives for 280 

Meats, Recipes for Curing 280 

Meats, Smoking of 284 

Meats, Smoked, Keeping of 286 

Meats, Yellow, Wash for 2S6 

Mechanical Power on the Farm 1 

Medicine Stains, How to Remove 307 

Mending 328 

Metal Lamp, How to Fill 337 

Metals, Polishing 331 

Methods, Business 178 

Methods of Applying Stucco on Old 

Brick 93 

Mice 311 

Mildew, How to Remove 303, 318 

Milk , 287 

Milk Bread , 288 

Milk, Burned, How to Remove Taste 

from 287 

Milk, How to Keep Sweet 287 

Milk, How to Prevent Burning 287 

Milk Stains, How to Remove 307 

Milk, Substitute for 288 

Milk Vats, Concrete 75 

Milking Stool 342 

Miscellaneous Suggestions 291 

Misfiring 30 

Misfiring in Cylinders 30 

Mixing Concrete by Machine 57 

Mixing Paint 231 

Mixing the Concrete 46 

Mixtures, Concrete, Recommended, 

Table of 55 

Mixture of Fuel and Air, Adjusting 12 

Molasses, How to Make Run 295 

Mold, How to Prevent 335 

Money Making Hints for Girls 336 

Monolithic or One-Piece Method in 

Concrete 97 

Mop, Dust, How to Clean 299 

Mosquitoes, How to Keep Away... 310, 311 

Moth Powders 312 

Moth Preventives 312 

Moths 312 

Moths, How to Kill 312 

Mucilage, Ever-Mend 329 

Mud, How to Remove 305 

Mush and Oatmeal, Left Over 293 

Mush, How to Keep from Lumping 295 

Mushrooms, How to Test 291 

N 

Net Curtains, How to Dry 320 

Net Curtains, How to Hold 334 

Nickeled Parts, How to Clean 332 

O 

Oak Polish 333 

Oak Wood, Imitation of 238 

Odors, How to Remove 304 



PAGE. 

Oil Lamps, How to Prevent Smoking.. 337 

Oil, Machine, How to Remove Stam 317 

Oil Spots on Feathers, How to Remove.. 305 

Olive Oil 293 

Onions, How to Keep 290 

Open Drain 161 

Orange Peel 275 

Oranges, How to Keep 275 

Organizations, Cooperative, Kinds of 196 

Outlet, Drainage System 157 

Oven, Oil Stove, How to Keep from 

Burning 294 

Overalls, How to Clean 319 

Overheated Cylinder, What to Do With.. 31 
Overheating in the Cylinder 31 

P 

Pads for Ironing Boards 296 

Paint Bases 236 

Paint, Cost and Composition of 231 

Paint, Fireproof 237 

Paint, Graining with 237 

Paint, How to Remove Spots from 305 

Paint, How to Keep from Peeling from 

Iron 332 

Paint, How to Remove 304, 318 

Paint Mixing 231 

Paint, Uses of 337 

Painted Doors, How to Clean 301 

Painted Floors, How to Polish 333 

Painted Walls, How to Clean 301 

Painting Exterior 231 

Painting Interior 231 

Painting, Old Oil, How to Renew 338 

Painting on Metal 231 

Painting, Precautions to Be Observed in. 235 

Painting, Preparation of Surface 230 

Painting, Tools Used in 229 

Paints ■ • 229 

Paints, Action of 230 

Paints, Calculating, Cost of White 232 

Paints, Composition of Colored 232 

Paints, Cost of Colored 232 

Panama Hats, How to Clean 300 

Pans, How to Keep from Sticking 294 

Paper Beads, How to Make 335 

Paper, How to Clean Easily 333 

Paraffin, How to Keep for Continuous 

Use 295 

Parsley, To Keep 290 

Parsnips, To Keep 290 

Paste for Wall Papering 330 

Pastes 329 

Pastries 288 

Patent Leather Dressing 331 

Patent Leather, How to Restore 325 

Pavements, Concrete, Construction of.... 63 

Peaches, How to Dry 271 

Peaches, How to Keep 275 

Pears, How to Keep 275 

Peas, How to Keep 290 



358 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 



FAGE. 

Pecans, How to Crack 292 

Pens for Farrowing 214 

Pens, Sheep 217 

Percolator, Coffee 273 

Permanent Hog House Design 209 

Permanent Hog House, Location 209 

Permanent Ink 329 

Perspiration Stains, How to Remove. 307, 318 
Peruvian Balsam Stain, How to Remove. .307 

Petroleum, Composition of Crude 15 

Petroleum Products Classified 17 

Petroleum Products, Heating Value of.. 19 

Petroleum Products, Separation of 17 

Petroleum Products, Weight of 18 

Phonograph Records, Broke, How to 

Mend 335 

Piano Cases, How to Clean 301 

Pickled Pigs' Feet 282 

Pie, How to Prevent Boiling Out 289 

Piers, Concrete for 68 

Pies, How to Remove from Pans 289 

Pigs' Feet, Pickled 282 

Pillows, Feather, How to Clean 299 

Pillows, How to Save 320 

Pipe, Hot Air Furnace 100 

Pipes, Paste for Leaks in 330 

Piping 103 

Pits, Manure, Concrete 75 

Plants, How to Keep Stems from 

Breaking 335 

Plaster of Paris Articles, How to 

Preserve 338 

Plated Parts, How to Clean 332 

Plumbing 105, 134 

Plumbing, Important Points in 134 

Plumbing, Quality of Material for 106 

Plumbing, Sewer 136 

Plumbing, Water ^ 134 

Pneumatic Tank System, Water 118 

Poaching Eggs, How to Keep the Whites 

from Breaking 274 

Polish for Varnished Work 333 

Polish, Shiny Surfaces 331 

Polished Wood, Heat Stains, How to 

Remove 306 

j utfisning Metals, Woodwork 331 

i'orch Swings, How to Keep from 

Squeaking 336 

Pork, Dry Cured 282 

Portland Cement 42 

Portland Cement, How Packed 42 

Portland Cement, Storing 43 

Portland Cement, Stucco 92 

Post for Gateway 86 

Post Puller 347 

Post, Timber, Facts 82 

Post Timbers, Relative Durability of S2 

Posts, Corner . . 86 

Posts, Fence, Concrete S2, 83 

Posts, Wooden, Flow to Preserve 335 

Potato Bug 309 



PAGE. 

Potato, Warehouse 225 

Potato, Warehouse, Plan 225 

Potato Warehouse, Requirements for 

Design 225 

Potatoes 290 

Potatoes, How to Keep 290 

Potatoes, Sweet 290 

Poultry House 213 

Poultry, House, Feeding and Watering 

Devices 222 

Poultry House, Location 21 S 

Poultry House, Nests in 222 

Poultry House, Partitions of 218 

Poultry House, Permanent 21S 

Poultry House, Roost 218 

Poultry House, Ventilation of 218 

Poultry, How to Cook 2S6 

Power 19 

Power House, Design of 24 

Power House, Equipment of 25 

Power House, Location of 24 

Power House or Shop on Farm 23 

Power, Loss of in Gas Engines 29 

Power, Mechanical, on the Farm 1 

Power Plant, Management of 26 

Power Produces Profit 1 

Power Rating of the Gas Engine 19 

Power, Source of, in the Gas Engine.... 15 

Power Used in Ignition 167 

Precautions to Be Observed in Painting. .235 
Pre-Ignition or Deep Pounding in the 

Cylinder 31 

Pre-Ignition, What to Do 31 

Principles of Combustion 5 

Production, Record of 187 

Profit and Income 191 

Profit, Definition of 191 

Profit, Farm, How to Figure 192 

Protecting the Finished Concrete Work.. 59 

Protection from Lightning 228 

Protection of Wells Ill 

Protective Well Curbings or Coverings. .115 

Protective Well Linings 114 

Pulleys 25 

Pulleys, Speeds and Sizes 27 

Pumping Plants for Irrigation 167 

Pumping Water 116, 126 

Pumpkins 291 

Pumps, Capacity of 126 

Pumps, Types of 127 

Puncture Proof for Tire Casing, How to 

Make 40 

Punctures, Tire, Repair of on Road 40 

Purification and Disposal of Sewage. .. .136 
Purification of Sewage 136 

Q 

Quilts, Heavy. How to Wasli 319 

Quilts, How to Make 238 



ENGINEERING INDEX 



359 



R 

PAGE. 

Radiators, Automobile 37 

Radiators of Heating System 103 

Radishes 291 

Rag Bag, How to Make 327 

Rancid Butter, How to Sweeten 273 

Raisins, How to Remove Seeds 275 

Rattle, Cam-Shaft 32 

Raw Vegetables, How to Clean Before 

Eating 2S9 

Recommended Mixtures, Concrete, 

Table of 55 

Record, Farm Produce 191 

Record Labor 188, 189 

Record of Production 187 

Record, Secondary 1SS 

Record, Seeding * 191 

Record, Feeding 190 

Record, Household 190 

Record, Year's Summary of 191 

Records, Phonograph, Broken, How to 

Mend 335 

Rectangular Concrete Hog Wallow 73 

Reeving Blocks 262 

Reinforced Concrete 60 

Relaying Untwisted Rope 246 

Removable Chicken House 222 

Removable Hog House 214 

Reservoirs, Losses in Irrigation 16S 

Reservoirs, Storage 167 

Rhubarb, How to Keep 291 

Ribbons, How to Clean 317 

Rich Mixture of Fuel and Air, Effect 13 

Roaches . 213 

Rock Blasting in Drainage 161 

Rompers, How to Preserve Elastic in 326 

Roof Paint 238 

Roost, Poultry House 21S 

Root Cellar 227 

Root Cellar, Drainage 227 

Root Cellar, Location of 237 

Root Cellar, Storage in 227 

Root Cellar, Ventilation 227 

Rope, Blocks and Tackle 262 

Rope, Calculation of Strength 243 

Rope, Calculation of Weights 243 

Rope, Care of 245 

Rope, Construction of 240 

Rope, Double Bow Line Knots >248 

Rope, Farmer's Loop 251 

Rope, Fiber, Sources of 242 

Rope, General Information 240 

Rope, Half Hitch'. 252 

Rope, Harness Hitch 248 

Rope Hitches 252 

Rope, Knots, Elements of 246 

Rope, Knots, Principles of 246 

Rope, Lifting Force of Blocks, 

265, 266, 267, 26S 

Rope, Long Splices 257 

Rope, Loops Between the Ends 248 



PAGE. 

Rope, Maximum and Safe Loads 268 

Rope, Moving Heavy Objects 268 

Rope, Preventing Ends from Untwisting. 246 

Rope, Reeving Blocks 262 

Rope, Sheep Shank Kaot 262 

Rope, Short Splices 253 

Rope, Slip Knot and Half Hitch 247 

Rope, Spliced Eye 247 

Rope Splices 252 

Rope, Strength of 242 

Rope, Timber Hitch 253 

Rope, Timber Hitch and Half Hitch 253 

Rope, Two Half Hitches 253 

Rope, Uncoiling of 245 

Rope, Whipping 246 

Rose Jar, How to Make 334 

Rosebeads, How to Make 334 

Rosebush, Lice and Ants 311 

Roses, How to Cut and Plant 335 

Rubber Bands, How to Restore 274 

Rubber Heels, How to Save 336 

Rubber, How to Prevent from Softening. 335 

Rubbers, Doubling the Life of 325 

Rug Corners, How to Prevent Curling.. 337 

Rugs, Braided 334 

Rugs, Fraying Out, How to Prevent 340 

Rugs, How to Clean 301 

Rugs, How to Prevent Curling 340 

Rugs, How to Remove Stains from 305 

Rust, How to Remove 304 

Rusty Screw, How to Remove 305 

S 

Sack Holder 344, 345 

Salt, How to Keep Dry 295 

Salt Pork, Plain 281 

Sample Farm Inventory 178 

Satins, How to Clean 317 

Sausage 283 

Sausage, Bologna 284 

Sausage, Casings for .284 

Sausage, How to Keep 285 

Save Money 294 

Scale, The Baume 17 

Scheme, Cooperative 195 

Scissors, How to Sharpen 337 

Scorch, How to Remove 31S 

Scorch Stains, How to Remove 307 

Scrapple 2S2 

Scratched on Mahogany 333 

Scratches on Wall Paper, To Remove.. 305 

Screening the Aggregate 45 

Secondary Record 188 

Seeding Record 191 

Self-Feeder for Horses 342 

Self-Starter, Effective, for Automobiles.. 40 

Separation of Petroleum Products 17 

Septic-Tanks, Automatic Siphon in 141 

Septic-Tanks, Dimensions: of 139 

Septic-Tanks, Location and Construction. 140 
Septic-Tank Systems, Double Chamber. . .138 



360 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 



PAGE. 

Septic-Tank, Treatment of Sewage 136 

Serge, How to Take Shine from 321 

Sewage Disposal by Intermittent Sand 

Filtration . .144 

Sewage Disposal by Subsurface Distri- 
bution 143 

Sewage Disposal by Surface Distribution. 143 

Sewage Disposal Systems 106 

Sewage Final Disposal System 143 

Sewage, Final Treatment of 137 

Sewage, Preliminary Treatment of 136 

Sewage, Purification and Disposal of 136 

Sewage, Septic-Tank Treatment 136 

Sewer Plumbing 136 

Sewer System, Grease Trap of 147 

Sewer System, Suggestion on Operation. 147 

Shafting 25 

Shafts, Horse Power of, for Given 

Diameter and Speed 25 

Shaving Horse 246 

Sheep Barn 216 

Sheep Barn, Doors> of 216 

Sheep Barn, Feeding Racks 216 

Sheep Barn, Partitions of 216 

Sheep Pens 217 

Sheep Shank Knot 252 

Sheets, No Frayed Corners When Hang- 
ing 233 

Shelf Hangers, The Spacing of 26 

Shine, How to Take from Cloth 321 

Shirts, Faded by Washing 327 

Shirts, How to Double Life of 326 

Shirts, How to Make Old Ones New.... 326 

Shirts, Old, How to Use 327 

Shirts, Work, How to Make 327 

Shoe Tongues, How to Keep in Place... 325 

Shoes 325 

Shoes, Brown, How to Make Black 325 

Shoes, More Wear from Them 325 

Short Splices, Rope 253 

Shortenings 293 

Silk Glove, How to Put on 315 

Silk Gloves, When Worn Out, How to 

use 325 

Silk Hose, How to Launder 319 

Silk or Pongee, How to Launder 319 

Silk, Renewing Rust> Looking 318 

Silk Waists, How to Dye 324 

Silks, How to Clean 317 

Silks, How to Keep Looking New 321 

Silks, How to Renew 327 

Silo 205 

Silos, Materials of Which to Make 205 

Silver, How to Clean 301, 332 

Silver Plate Polish 332 

Simple Principles of Gas Fngine 5 

Single-Chamber Tank Systems 145 

Sink Cleaner 302 

Site for Granary 224 

Size of Water Pipes in Buildings 134 

Sizes of Waste and Vent Pipes 136 



PAGE. 

Skirts, How to Hang 326 

Slab Method, in Concrete Work 97 

Slip Knot 247 

Slop Troughs, Concrete 72 

Smell, Sooty, To Remove 305 

Smoke, Black, What It Designates in 

Gas Engines 32 

Smoked Meats, Keeping of 2S6 

Smokehouse • • 284 

Smokehouse, Filling of 2S5 

Smoking Meat, Keeping Up Fire for 285 

Smoking of Meats 284 

Snow Packing to Keep Meat 278 

Soap, Fine Hard 316 

Soap, Fine White 316 

Soiled Hands, How to Clean 300 

Sooty, Smell, To Remove 305 

Soup, How to Remove Fat 296 

Sour Milk, How to Sweeten 2S7 

Source of Power in Gas Engines 15 

Spacing the Shaft Hangers 26 

Sparrows, How to Drive Away 313 

Spectacles, How to Keep Clear 300 

Speed Variations in Gas Engines 33 

Speeds and Sizes of Pulleys 27 

Spiders 313 

Spliced Eye, Knot 247 

Splices, Long Rope 257 

Splices, Rope 253 

Splices, Short, Rope 253 

Sponges, How to Clean 302 

Sponging Clothes 321 

Spots on Furniture from Heat, How to 

Remove 305 

Spots on Furniture, How to Remove 305 

Spots on Paint, How to Remove 305 

Spots, White, on Varnish, How to 

Remove ■ • • 305 

Spring of Window Shade, How to Wind 

Up 338 

Springs 115 

Springs, Used for Irrigation 167 

Sprinkling Cloths 321 

Squash, How to Keep 291 

Stain, Blood, How to Remove 305 

Stain, Bluing, How to Remove 306 

Stain, Coffee, How to Remove 306 

Stain, Dye, How to Remove 306 

Stain, Fruit, How to Remove 306 

Stain, Grass, How to Remove 306 

Stain, Grease, How to Remove 306 

Stain, Heat, on Polished Wood 306 

Stain, Iodine, How to Remove 306 

Stain, Medicine, How to Remove 307 

Stain, Milk, How to Remove 307 

Stain on Mahogany, How to Remove 333 

Stain, Perspiration, How to Remove 307 

Stain, Peruvian Balsam, How to Remove. 307 

Stain Removers 323 

Stain, Scorch, How to Remove 307 

Stain, Varnish, How to Remove 307 



ENGINEERING INDEX 



361 



PAGE. 

Stain, Wax, How to Remove 307 

Stains, How to Remove from Rugs 305 

Stains, in White Goods, How 'to Remove. 303 

Stairways and Steps, Concrete 89 

Staking Out Drainage System 151 

Stall Floor, Concrete SO 

Stall for Cow 342 

Stamps, How to Separate 337 

Stanchion, Swinging 343 

Standard Sizes of Galvanized Boilers. . .135 
Starch, How to Greatly Increase 

Value of 316 

Starch Lustre 316 

Starch, Rice Water Used as 316 

Starched Articles Sticking to Iron 321 

Starting Troubles, Gas Engine 2S 

Statement, ■ Cattle * 194 

Steak, Hamburg 284 

Steak or Fresh Meat, How to Keep.... 287 
Steam Heating Systems, Installation of.. 101 

Steel Forms, Concrete 63 

Steering Gear of Automobile 37 

Steps and Stairways, Concrete S9 

Steps, Concrete Basement, Construc- 
tion of 90 

Steps, How to Save 293 

Sticking, How to Prevent Concrete from. 63 

Stockings, Holes in 326 

Stockings, How to Keep Color 325 

Stockings, How to Keep Mated 326 

Stockings, Leather Stains, How to 

Remove from 307 

Stone, Broken, for Concrete 44 

Storage Batteries, How to Change from 

Alternating Current 40 

Storage in Root Cellar 227 

Storage of Water 116 

Storage Reservoirs 167 

Stores, Cooperative : 196 

Storing, Portland Cement 43 

Stove, Grease on, How to Remove. .. .303 

Stove Polish, How to Remove 318 

Stove Polish, Liquid 332 

Stoves, How to Blacken 293 

Stoves, How to Care for 332 

Stoves, How to Polish 332 

Straw Hats, How to Clean 324 

Strawberry Worms 314 

Streams, Used for Irrigation 166 

Stroke, Compression 6 

Stroke, Exhaust 8 

Stroke, Expansion 8 

Stroke, Intake or Suction 6 

Stucco, Application of 93 

Stucco, Constituents of 92 

Stucco Lath •. 93 

Stucco, Methods of Applying on Old 

Brick 93 

Stucco on New Work 94 

Stucco, Portland Cement 92 

Study of Each Farm Enterprise.. 193 



PAGE. 

Subsurface 'Distribution of Sewage 143 

Suction or Intake Stroke 6 

Sudden Stopping of Gas Engine 30 

Sugar-Cured Hams and Bacon 282 

Sugar Sacks, How to Use .292 

Sugar, Substitute for 275 

Summary of Year's Record 191 

Sunbonnets, Children's 327 

Sunburn, How to Remove 307 

Surface Area, Concrete 71 

Surface Distribution of Sewage... 143 

Surface Finish, Concrete 94 

Surface for Painting, Preparation of... 230 

Surface Supplies of 'Water 107 

Surface Supplies of Water, Contamina- 
tion 107 

Survey, How to 152 

Sweater, How to Wash 320 

Sweet Potatoes, How to Keep 290 

T 

Table Mats, How to Make 296 

Table Pads, How to Keep Clean 315 

Table Pads, How to Make 296 

Table Setting 296 

Tablecloth, How to Make Smoother 321 

Tack Puller 337 

Tank, Construction of Concrete 72 

Tank, Feet Head Water and Equivalent 

Pressure in 120 

Tank-Systems, Single-Chamber 145 

Tanks, Water, Concrete 72 

Tar on Cloths, How to Remove 307 

Tar on Hands, How to Remove 307 

Tea, How to Keep Fresh 273 

Tea Stains, How to Remove 317 

Temperature Control or Thermostat 103 

Temporary Hog House 214 

Test for Concrete Hardness 60 

Testing the Engine, Need for 21 

Thermostat or Temperature Control 103 

Three-Port Engine 8 

Tie, The Chain 343 

Ties, Old, How to Use 326 

Tile, Cement 159 

Tile, Clay 159 

Tile, Depth to Lay 158 

Tile, Grade 158 

Tile, Size 15S 

Timber Hitch 253 

Timber Hitch and Half Hitch 253 

Timber Post Facts 82 

Timber Post, Relative Durability of 82- 

Time Sheet, Regular Workers' Daily.... 189 

Timing the Ignition 14 

Tin Cans, How to Destroy 293 

Tire, Casing, How to Make Puncture 

Proof 40 

Tire Mileage, How to Increase 40 

Tire, Punctures, Repair of, on Road 40 

Tires, Anti-Skid Device for 40 



362 



THE RURAL EFFICIENCY GUIDE 



PAGE. 

Tires, Automobile 37 

Tires, Incorrect Inflation of 38 

Toasts 289 

Tobacco, How to Keep Bugs Away 313 

Tobacco Worm 314 

Tomatoes • . 291 

Tools Used in Painting 229 

Toothpaste 330 

Tracing Paper, Black, How to Make 337 

Treatment of Sewage, Final 137 

Tree Remover 346 

Trenching for Tile 159 

Trimming, Colored, to Wash Garment 

with 319 

Troubles, Ga^ Engine 27 

Troughs, Concrete 72 

Troughs, Construction of Concrete 72 

Troubles of Gas Engine Analyzed....... 28 

Turnips, How to Keep 291 

Twine Holder .293 

Two-Cycle Engines, Types of S 

Two-Cylinder Engines, Crank-Case 

Explosions in 32 

Types and Methods of Sinking Wells.. 112 

Types of Pumps . . . .' 127 

Types of Two-Cycle Engines 8 

U 

Umbrella Stand 335 

Umbrella Top, How to Make 334 

Uncoiling Rope 245 

Under-Drainage 156 

Underground Water Supplies 109 

Underground Water Supplies, Contami- 
nation of 109 

Untwisted Rope, Relaying 246 

Upholstered Furniture, How to Clean. . . .302 
Upkeep of Gas Engine, Miscellaneous.. 33 

V 

Vapor Heating System, Installation 

of 102, 104 

Varnish, How to 238 

Varnish, How to Remove White Spots 

from 305 

Varnish Stains, How to Remove 238 

Varnishes 238 

Vaseline, How to Remove 318 

Vats, Milk and Cream, Concrete 75 

Vegetables 289, 296 

Vegetables, How to Keep 297 

Vegetables, Raw, How to Clean Before 

Eating 2S9 

Veils, Keeping Clean and Fresh 319 

Velvet, Black, How to Revive 327 

Velvet, Flow to Clean 317 

Vent Pipes, Sizes 136 

Ventilation During Rain 336 

Ventilation of Dairy Barn 205 

Ventilation of Root Cellar 227 



PAGE. 

Vessel, How to Remove Woody Taste 

from 295 

Vibration, Excessive in Engine 32 

Vinegar o 91 

W 

Wagon Grease, How to Remove. ..... .318 

Wagon Jack 344 

Walks, Concrete, Construction of 63 

Walks, Concrete for 68 

Wall Pockets 334 

Wallpaper, How to Keep Bugs from.... 309 
Wallpaper, How to Remove Grease from. 303 
Wallpaper, How to Remove Scratches on. 305 

Wallpapering, Paste for 330 

Walls, Painted, How to Clean 301 

Walnut Polish 333 

Walnut Wood, Imitation of 23S 

Warehouse for Potatoes 225 

Washing Aggregate 46 

Washing Fluid 317 

Washing, Saving Time 315 

Wash Tub, Cover for 321 

Waste Pipe, Sizes 136 

Watch Ticking, How to Deaden 337 

Water, Amount to Use for Mixing 

Concrete 56 

Water Boiler, Hot 103 

Water, Distilled 10S 

Water, Distribution of 116 

Water Filter, How to Make _ 296 

Water Flow, Determination of, in 

Irrigation 175 

Water, Gravity System 117 

Water, Irrigation, Source of 116 

Water, Measurements of, in Irrigation. . .171 
Water Pipes, How to Keep from 

Freezing 337 

Water Pipes in Buildings, Size of 134 

Water Plumbing 134 

Water, Pneumatic Tank System US 

Water, Pumping 116, 126 

Water, Pumping, Storage, Distribution 

of 116 

Water, Quantity Needed 116 

Water, Quantities Required Per Day 117 

Water, Removal of Free or Ground. .. .149 

Water Spilled in Bed, How to Dry 337 

Water, Storage of 116 

Water Supplies, Underground .109 

Water, Supply, Dangers from Contami- 
nation 106 

Water Supply for the Farm 106 

Water Supply from Cisterns 107 

Water, Surface Supplies of.. 107 

Water System, Autopneumatic 122 

Water Tanks, Concrete 7; - 

Water-Tight Concrete 44 

Wax Stains, How to Remove 307 

Weevil, Grain 309 



ENGINEERING INDEX 



363 



PAGE. 

Weight of Petroleum Products 18 

Weir Box . .- 171 

Weir Construction 172 

Weir Dimensions 172 

Weir, The Cippoletti 172 

Well Curbings or Coverings, Protective. . 115 

Well, Linings, Protective 114 

Well, Location and Preliminary Protec- 
tion Ill 

Wells, for Irrigation 167 

Wells, Types and Methods of Sinking.. 112 
Wheezing and Scraping Sound in Gas 

Engine 32 

Whipping, Rope 246 

White Clothes. How to Wash Easily 320 

White Goods. How to Take Yellow Out. .320 
White Good, Stains in, How to Remove.. 302 
White Shoes, How to Remove Grease on. 303 

White Silk, When Turning Yellow 320 

White Spots on Varnish, How to 

Remove 305 

Whitewash .233, 330 

Willow Work Polish 333 

Window Blinds, How to Make 338 



PAGE. 
Window Shade Spring, How to Wind 

Up 338 

Wood Ashes 292 

Wood Imitation of Different Kinds 237 

Wood, Paste for Leaks in 330 

Wood Posts, How to Preserve 335 

Woodwork, How to Clean 301 

Woodwork, How to Clean Easily 333 

Woodwork, How to Fill 332 

Woodwork, How to Protect 333 

Woodwork, Polishing 331 

Woolens, How to Wash 320 

Work Report, Monthly 188 

Worms 313 

Worn Parts of Gas Engine 33 

Wrench, A Handy 343 

Y 
Year's Record. Summary of 191 

Z 
Zinc, How to Brighten 333 




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